"Belt system. The cingulate gyrus (cingulate gyrus)

The cingulate gyrus can be compared to a gearbox. When stressed, it seizes, which makes us inflexible and we lose the ability to adapt. Such behavioral rigidity significantly reduces our stress tolerance. Today I will tell you how to normalize the activity of the cingulate gyrus (most of the exercises from Amen's book "Brain and Love").

Children's behavior.

Understand that cingulate gyrus problems are not your personality traits or traits, but manifestations of a tired, stressed cingulate gyrus. This is childish behavior when the child's cingulate gyrus is still immature: he loves to suck on a pacifier, does the same thing for a long time, loves rituals and often gets upset if the ritual does not match.

Children often only want a "favorite doll" and refuse to interact if it isn't. With the strengthening of the prefrontal, this behavior is weakened, but may reactivate in adults.

Get distracted.

Notice when you start to fixate, get distracted and come back to the topic later. The first step to correcting brain dysfunction is to notice that you are “hanging out” and to distract yourself from the thoughts that have begun to run in circles. Being aware of the appearance of intrusive thoughts is very important in order to control them. As soon as you catch yourself thinking that the thought has gone in a circle, distract yourself from it. Get up and do something else. Distraction is very often effective.

Some of the patients with lumbar dysfunction report that it helps them to make a list of activities that distract them from intrusive thoughts.

For example:

sing your favorite songs
listen to uplifting music
go for a walk;
do housework;
play with the animals that live in your home;
pray;
focus all your attention on one word and not allow other thoughts to sneak into consciousness (think of a mop sweeping out the rest of the thoughts).

If you actively distract from intrusive thoughts and block them, over time they will lose their power over you.

mindfulness practices

Observe yourself and notice when you "fixate" or start sucking on a problem instead of solving it. Remember that only thoughts that lead to actions matter, and nothing more. Read more about mindfulness.

All parts of the neural axis work together, but two of its sections have special mechanisms that are provided by their nerve processes that go in all directions. These are the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the amygdala.

Let's start with AUC (for more information, see Lewis and Todd, 2007; Paus, 2001). The APC is closely related to the evolutionarily young areas of the prefrontal cortex - the dorsal (posterior) frontal cortex and the lateral (lateral) cortex, together this zone is referred to by the difficult-to-pronounce term "dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPC)". This area of the cortex is the main nerve substratum of the working memory of the DLPC - a kind of temporary auxiliary storage where the brain lays out the information required to solve an urgent problem and make decisions.

In addition, the ACC is in constant contact with the supplementary motor cortex, where new activities are planned. Through these connections, the ACC organizes our actions aimed at achieving certain goals. When the goal becomes clear, the fragments of our inner experience, which is necessary to achieve the goal, are collected into a single whole, and this process is expressed in the so-called neural coherence (consistency).

On the “order” of the ACC, many regions far apart (on a microscopic scale) from each other begin to pulsate together, coordinating the phases of surges and decays, excitation and deceleration. Typically, this neural synchrony pulses at a gamma rhythm, 30 to 80 times per second (Thompson and Varela, 2001). PPK is the main curator of our attention. It monitors the implementation of our progress towards the goals and notes the contradictions between them. Its upper levels exercise increased control, deliberate and constant regulation of thoughts and behavior. These areas do not mature until 3–6 years of age (Posner and Rothbart, 2000). Basically, this is why children control themselves worse than adults. ACC works every time you consciously carry out your intention. Through tight two-way connections with the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus, the ACC influences and is itself influenced by emotions.

We can say that it is here that the main center of connection of thoughts and feelings is located (Lewis, 2005). Strengthening AUC (through meditation, for example) helps a person think more clearly when upset and brings warmth and emotional intelligence to logical reasoning. In other words, ACC is at the very center of top-down, deliberate, centralized, deliberate motivation.

Don't think, just write.

If you are stuck on some image or thought, take a piece of paper and write what you see or think there, and then, again, write how to get out of this or how the situation can be developed further. You need to write because quite a lot of other parts of the brain are involved in thinking about the plot and writing it down. This will allow the impulse stuck in the cingular gyrus to escape from the place of detention.

Various writing techniques help: You can just write whatever comes to mind. If a situation torments you, write down all possible ways to solve it, even the most absurd ones, and all the possibilities. Important: do not think about it, but write it out - different parts of the brain are involved in these processes! If the problem seems to be difficult to solve, the old tried and tested plan will again help. Also in writing, but with precise and vivid details. The exact time of execution, if you are prone to obsessions, you should not attach. This will greatly distract from the implementation of the plan.

If you fixate on one thought, it often helps to write it down to get rid of it. When you write it down, it often goes out of your mind. Seeing it written on paper makes it easier to deal with it rationally. If intrusive thoughts are causing you trouble sleeping, keep a paper and pencil near your bed to write them down. After writing down such an annoying thought, make a list of what you can do about it and what you cannot do. Let's say if you are worried about the situation at work, whether you will get a promotion or not, do the following.

1. Write down this thought: "I'm worried about getting a promotion at work."

2. Write down what you can do about the cause of your anxiety:

“At work, I can try my best.”

"I will continue to be a reliable, hardworking and creative worker."

"I will make sure that the boss does not doubt that I deserve a promotion." “Confidently, but not boastfully, I will tell my boss about what I have done for our company.”

3. Make a list of things you can't do about your anxiety: "I can't decide for my boss."

"I can't desire this promotion any more than I desire it."

“I am not in a position to directly influence the decision on my promotion. My excitement won't help here."

“I am not able to make it so that they decide to promote me (although a lot depends on my mood and work).”

Use this simple exercise to get out of the cycle of thoughts that keep you awake at night and keep you on your toes.

View from the outside.

If you are fixated on a problem, then a look from the outside is the best solution. Feel free to ask friends for help if you can't cope with the thoughts spinning in your head. But it's not like your friend says something like "spit it and forget it" or "what disgusting things are you thinking about." He needs to help you work through the material stuck in your head.

If all attempts to get rid of obsessive thoughts remain unsuccessful, it often helps to seek advice from someone with whom you can discuss your worries and fears or obsessions. Sometimes, just talking about the fact that some thought haunts you, etc., you suddenly find that you see a way out. For several years, I myself have been looking for solutions, discussing the problem with people more experienced than me. Others can become just listeners: by formulating your problem in front of them, you get the opportunity to see new solutions and compare your perception with the perception of others.

Come up with a paradox.

Practice paradoxical thinking. Consider the problem from different angles, from different points of view, with the study of the pros and cons.

Physical activity.

Yes, yes, and she is right there. They say that it is these departments that, with regular exercises, begin to function better. Even a simple squat requires a quick switch from one muscle group to another. This is, among other things, useful that happens from physical activity. Physical exercise is often very effective in reducing anxiety and increasing cognitive flexibility. During exercise, the level of tryptophan in the brain tissue increases. As noted, the tryptophan molecule has a relatively small size, and therefore it often has to fight with larger molecules for the ability to penetrate the brain. During exercise, the body uses larger molecule amino acids to restore muscle strength, thus reducing their blood levels. At this time, tryptophan can enter the brain in large quantities, increasing the level of serotonin. In addition, physical activity increases your energy and distracts you from unpleasant intrusive thoughts. I often advise confrontational kids to get more exercise because it helps them increase their tryptophan levels and interact more easily with others.

Relax facial muscles

Wrinkle in front of a mirror, do an anti-stress massage of the face and head (the technique is in this video). Nervous tics and eye twitches are a clear indicator of problems with the lumbar gyrus. When the motor zone of the cingulate cortex is stimulated, ticoid movements are possible, involving the muscles of the lips, tongue, and hands, which a person can delay by volitional effort.

Spontaneity.

Dance, play any game, go to a new place, do something unusual. The neurons of the cingulate motor cortex are activated during movement, and in its caudal part, the proportion of neurons selectively activated during spontaneous movements is especially high. Spontaneity perfectly reduces hypertonicity of the cingulate gyrus and reduces stress levels. In order to cure this part of our consciousness, we should, among other things, accustom it to look for new options and options and new ideas.

Throw out old things and update everything you can.

A characteristic feature of the defeat of the cingulate gyrus is Plyushkin's syndrome.
Patients with Plushkin's syndrome are pathological hoarders who suffer from extreme self-neglect, apathy, emotional lability, suspicion, and lack of shame. All this often turns against them. Plyushkin's syndrome often leads to social isolation, which increases as rubbish accumulates in a person's home, and the appearance changes under the influence of the disease. Such people accumulate a huge amount of unnecessary things, are indifferent to dirt and garbage, are unfriendly to visitors and, as a rule, somehow resist attempts to help them change their lifestyle. However, they are not always poor: they simply prefer not to spend money. The syndrome is thought to be caused by abnormalities in the anterior cingulate gyrus and insula, which are normally involved in decision making.

Pause

As noted, many people with cingulate dysfunction tend to automatically answer “no.” Fight this tendency. Before responding to a request or a question with a habitual “no,” take a breath and consider whether a negative answer is actually optimal in this case. Often this scheme helps: inhale, pause for three seconds, then exhale for five seconds. This gives you extra time before responding. For example, if your spouse calls you to bed to make love, before answering that you are tired, sick, very busy, or not in the mood, take a deep breath. As you breathe in, consider whether you really want to say no to your partner. Is it really better for you if you say no and go about your business, or is it better for you to be in a close relationship with this person. The automatic “no” has ruined more than one love. Give yourself enough time to wonder if you really mean "no" when you say "no"?

Mindfulness n It starts with the ability to take a break.

Don't argue.

If you are arguing with someone and you see that this person has become "stubborn", take a break, take a break. May it last ten minutes, ten hours or ten days! If you manage to take your mind off the lose-lose situation in which everyone loses, you can come back to the discussion later and solve the problem.

A long time ago I realized that there is no need to argue with those who have impaired function of the belt system. When a person "closes" on some thought or action, logical arguments usually do not help. One of the most effective ways I have found to communicate with the introverted is this: I summarize what I want to say. If I see that my interlocutor begins to lock in on his position, I try to change the subject and switch his attention. This gives his subconscious time to process what I have said without confronting the thought. It often turns out that when we return to this conversation some time later, the person already more easily accepts my point of view.

This technique often helps in communicating with teenagers. Many of them argue and contradict their elders due to the natural process of growing up and separating from their parents. I suggest that parents move away from confrontation with their children by quickly stating their position and switching to another topic. If we are talking about matters of principle, return to their discussion later.

One of the best pieces of advice I give to couples with marital problems remains: "Go to the bathroom." If you see that your partner is starting to repeat himself, and his waist system is getting more and more involved in your argument, apologize and say that you need to go to the toilet. Few people will argue with a person who has felt such a natural need, and yet a pause in the argument is often useful. If your interlocutor has entered a particularly steep "dive", take a thicker book with you and do not go out longer.

Learn to deal with "difficult" children

When dealing with "difficult" children, there are two main pieces of advice to keep in mind. Such children often fixate on negative behavior. If you can find the right approach to them, it can change their whole life. The first tip is this: to break their fixation on obsessive thoughts or actions, because of which they become stubborn and hostile, try to understand when to distract them. Distraction is an effective technique that helps well to free people with impaired function of the cingulate system from “fixation”. Distract such a child by changing the topic of conversation, switching his attention to physical activity (send him for a walk, invite him to play) or to a task that includes a distraction exercise.

It is very important for parents of children with impaired function of the cingulate system to assert their "higher" authority. Parents should not allow confrontational behavior to win. Otherwise, they only develop this tendency in the child, which may well ruin his whole future life. Parents who indulge in demands do not teach the child to obey authority. Therefore, these children have a difficult time in school and in society. The most effective kids tend to be raised by authoritarian parents with strong positions. In the same way that obsessive thoughts and actions can be more difficult for people with OCD to resist when they give in to them, confrontational behavior in children only gets worse when given in to it. The sooner you wean children from this behavior, the better for everyone. To this end, I developed a set of rules for parents, which was the first step in teaching how to deal with such children. It is very important to clearly formulate the rules and make it clear that you do not intend to deviate from them (these rules). Here are two rules regarding confrontational behavior.

Do what your parents say the first time.

No arguments with parents.

These rules state that you, as a parent, have the authority to not let your child fight you. If you make it a rule to get your children to obey the first time, they will know that this is what is required of them. If they did not obey, disobedience should be stopped immediately. No need to repeat your request a hundred times. In this case, the chances that you will offend your child with a word or action increase many times over. If you asked a child to do something, and he refuses or hesitates - without postponing “for later”, tell him this: “Choose. You can do it now, or wait and do it later. I don't care. Decide youself". If the child is not in a hurry to immediately comply with your request, give him a time out. If necessary, this algorithm can be repeated. In case of disobedience, take action quickly, firmly, without emotion. The more emotionally you begin to communicate, the worse such children behave. The sequence is important here.

The second rule (no arguments with parents) is extremely important in dealing with confrontational children. If you allow such a child to argue with himself, this only strengthens and aggravates his resistance caused by a violation in the belt system. Of course, you are interested in hearing your child's opinion.

However, a line must be drawn between expressing one's opinion and arguing. Maybe it makes sense to warn the child: “Of course, we are your parents and we want to know your opinion. But if you repeated it more than twice, then this is already a dispute.

This kind of "parental intervention" is always effective if it takes place against the backdrop of a good relationship between parents and the child. Parents who develop a “limbic” connection with their child by talking to and listening to them are less likely to experience the problem of confrontational behavior.

Let's summarize what has been said. In dealing with confrontational children, use the method of distraction if necessary, while remaining firm and authoritarian. See how much you fight with them. Do not quarrel on any issue. Unfortunately, in confrontational children, one or both parents suffer from disorders in the cingulate system, and this only exacerbates the problems of such a family. Meanwhile, it often becomes easier when parents show a certain flexibility.

Altruism

If you have read this far, then here is a gift - the best way to reduce cingulate gyrus hypertonicity. Early observations of the activity of the human brain showed that when a merciful act is performed, the activity of the reinforcement system increases. This system in the brain is responsible for the feeling of pleasure, so it turns out that a person, even helping another, still acts in his own interests. This has been proven in experiments on monkeys.

If the monkey acted in its own interests, it activated the cells of the orbitofrontal cortex, which are responsible for personal gain. If the monkey gave juice to another, some neurons of the anterior cingulate gyrus fired in it, which were silent during the “selfish” act.

“Altruistic” neurons do not interfere with the pleasure of helping another, but only point to an additional source of such pleasure. The same area of the brain is involved in social interactions: for example, when a loved one gets into a difficult situation, it is the cingulate gyrus that "worries" for him.

Death.

Thinking about your death and the finiteness of being perfectly reduces the tone of the cingulate gyrus. I advise. published

FUNCTIONS OF THE BELT SYSTEM:

the ability to shift attention from one object to another;
cognitive flexibility;
ability to adapt;
switching from one thought to another;
the ability to see the choice;
the ability to "go with the flow";
ability to cooperate.

Deep in the central part of the brain, along the frontal lobes, runs the cingulate gyrus. This is the part of the brain that allows you to shift your attention from one object to another, switch from one thought to another, see different solutions. It is believed that she is responsible for the feeling of security. In my opinion, the most accurate way to express the functions of this area of the brain is the term “cognitive flexibility”.

Cognitive flexibility determines the ability of a person to go where everyone is, to adapt to changes, to successfully solve new problems. There are often situations in life that require cognitive flexibility. On the-

cingulate gyrus
Belt gyrus.	3D image - active brain.
3D image - active brain, top view.	3D image - active brain, front view.

For example, you come to a new job, and you need to get used to the new system of completing tasks. If you did something differently at your previous job, then in order to succeed in a new place, it is important to understand how to restructure in order to please the new bosses and adapt to the new system. As students transition from elementary to middle school, they need the cognitive flexibility to do well in school. Instead of one teacher, different teachers begin to teach different subjects. Students have to study, adjusting to the style of each of the teachers. Flexibility is also needed in relationships between friends. What works well with one friend may not work well with another.

Coping with change is one of the main conditions for personal, social and professional growth. And in this, a belt system can become a great help, or an obstacle. When it functions correctly, we are better able to follow daily circumstances. When its activity is reduced or, conversely, increased, cognitive flexibility is impaired.

In addition to switching attention, this area of the brain is also responsible for the ability to cooperate. With its effective work, it is easy for us to switch to cooperation mode. For those who have impaired function in this part of the brain, it is difficult to switch attention, and then they begin to behave in an inefficient way.

The cingulate system (along with other areas of the PC) is involved in the process of "looking into the future" thinking, such as planning and setting goals. With the normal functioning of this part of the brain, it is easier for us to plan and set reasonable goals for ourselves. In case of violations of her work, a person is inclined to see danger where there is none, to wait for an unfavorable outcome of situations and to feel very vulnerable in this world.

For the ability to adapt, it is important to be able to recognize existing options. In my profession, doctors who have the ability to adapt, readily apply new ideas and technologies (after the scientific base is formed under them), they can offer their patients new and interesting methods of treatment. Physicians with lumbar dysfunction (there were many of them among those I scanned) are unresponsive, work as they have always done, and are authoritarian ("If you want me to treat you, do as I say"). The ability to see options and new ideas keeps one's own development from being delayed and depression and hostility from developing.

BREAKDOWN PROBLEMS

BELT SYSTEM:

anxiety;
constant return to past grievances;
intrusive thoughts (about the session);
obsessive behavior (compulsion);
oppositional behavior;
desire for controversy;
inability to cooperate; the desire to automatically say "no";
the formation of addictions (alcohol, drugs, eating disorders);
chronic pain;
lack of cognitive flexibility;
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD);
OCD spectral disorders;
eating disorders;
extreme aggressive driving.

With violations of the belt system, a person tends to "go in cycles", constantly returning to the same thought. They constantly remember past grievances and traumas, being unable to “let go” of them. They may fixate on negative behaviors and develop compulsive behaviors (such as constantly washing their hands or trying to check the locks on doors).

One patient with impaired lumbar function described his condition as follows: "It's like a squirrel on a wheel when thoughts come back again, and again, and again." Another patient put it differently: “It's like a button to restart a program all the time. Even if I don't want to think that thought anymore, it still comes back."

We will dwell on the clinical conditions associated with disruption of the functioning of this area of the brain. And now I would like to talk about, as I call them, subclinical conditions caused by a malfunction of the cingulate system. Subclinical conditions are not expressed to the same extent as full-fledged disorders, but at the same time they may well worsen the quality of life. Anxiety, the constant memory of past hurts, lack of cognitive flexibility and rigidity may not be the reason for a visit to a psychotherapist, but nevertheless paint your life in gloomy tones. You can do without it."

The cingulate gyrus surrounds the hippocampus and other structures of the limbic system. It performs the function of the highest coordinator of various systems, i.e. makes sure that these systems interact and work together. Near the cingulate gyrus there is a vault - a system of fibers running in both directions; it repeats the curvature of the cingulate gyrus and connects the hippocampus with various brain structures, including Hpt.

Another structure, the septum, receives input through the fornix from the hippocampus and sends output to Hpt. "... stimulation of the septum can provide information about the satisfaction of all (and not individual) internal needs of the body, which, apparently, is necessary for the emergence of a pleasure reaction" (TL Leontovich).

The joint activity of the temporal cortex, cingulate gyrus, hippocampus and Hpt is directly related to the emotional sphere of higher animals and humans. Bilateral removal of the temporal region in monkeys results in symptoms of emotional apathy.

The removal of the temporal lobes in monkeys, together with the hippocampus and amygdala, led to the disappearance of fear, aggressiveness, and difficulty in distinguishing between the quality of food and its suitability for eating. Thus, the integrity of the temporal structures of the brain is necessary to maintain a normal emotional status associated with aggressive-defensive behavior.

2) Reticular formation (R.f.).

R.f. plays an important role in emotions. - Structure inside the pons and brainstem. It is this formation that is most capable of being a "generalizer" of one or another "private" need of the organism. It has a wide and versatile effect on various parts of the central nervous system up to the cerebral cortex, as well as on the receptor apparatus (sense organs). She has a high sensitivity to adrenaline and adrenolytic substances, which once again indicates an organic connection between R.F. and the sympathetic nervous system. It is able to activate various areas of the brain and conduct to its specific areas that information that is new, unusual or biologically significant, i.e. acts as a kind of filter. Fibers from the neurons of the reticular system go to various areas of the cerebral cortex, some through the thalamus. It is believed that most of these neurons are "non-specific". This means that the neurons of R.f. can respond to many types of stimuli.

Some sections of the R.f. have specific functions. These structures include the blue spot and the black substance. A blue spot is a dense accumulation of neurons producing in the area of synaptic contacts (to the thalamus, Hpt, cerebral cortex, cerebellum, spinal cord) the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (also produced by the adrenal medulla). Norepinephrine triggers an emotional response. Perhaps norepinephrine also plays a role in the occurrence of reactions subjectively perceived as pleasure. Another section of R. f. - substantia nigra - is a cluster of neurons that release the mediator - dopamine. Dopamine contributes to some pleasurable sensations. It is involved in creating euphoria. R.F. plays an important role in regulating the level of performance of the cerebral cortex, in the change of sleep and wakefulness, in the phenomena of hypnosis and neurotic states.

3) The cerebral cortex.

Emotions are one of the reflective sides, i.e. mental activity. Consequently, they are associated with the cortex - the highest part of the brain, but to a large extent - with the subcortical formations of the brain, which are in charge of the regulation of the heart, respiration, metabolism, sleep and wakefulness.

Currently, a large amount of experimental and clinical data has been accumulated on the role of the cerebral hemispheres in the regulation of emotions. The areas of the cortex that play the largest role in emotions are the frontal lobes, to which there are direct neural connections from the thalamus. The temporal lobes are also involved in creating emotions.

The frontal lobes are directly related to the assessment of the probabilistic characteristics of the environment. When emotions arise, the frontal cortex plays the role of identifying highly significant signals and screening out secondary ones. This allows you to direct behavior towards the achievement of real goals, where the satisfaction of the need can be predicted with a high degree of probability. Based on a comparison of all the information, the frontal cortex provides a choice of a specific behavior pattern.

Due to the anterior neocortex, behavior is oriented towards signals of high probability events, while responses to signals with a low probability of reinforcement are inhibited. Bilateral damage to the frontal (frontal) cortex in monkeys leads to a prediction disorder that does not recover within 2-3 years. A similar defect is observed in patients with pathology of the frontal lobes, which are characterized by a stereotypical repetition of the same actions that have lost their meaning. Orientation to the signals of highly probable events makes the behavior adequate and effective. However, in special conditions, in situations with a significant degree of uncertainty, with a clear lack of pragmatic information, it is necessary to take into account the possibility of unlikely events. For reactions to signals with the required probability of their reinforcement, the preservation of the hippocampus, the second "information" structure of the brain, is important.

The frontal parts of the neocortex are directly related to the assessment of the probabilistic characteristics of the environment.

Data are gradually accumulating that testify to the role of interhemispheric asymmetry in the formation of emotions. To date, the information theory of P.V. Simonova is the only complete system of ideas about the formation of emotions, only it allows you to connect the behavioral functions of emotions with the structures of the brain necessary for these functions.

The defeat of the frontal lobes leads to profound disturbances in the emotional sphere of a person. 2 syndromes develop predominantly: emotional dullness and disinhibition of lower emotions and drives. With injuries in the area of the frontal lobes of the brain, changes in mood are observed - from euphoria to depression, loss of the ability to plan, apathy. This is due to the fact that the limbic system, as the main "reservoir" of emotions, is closely connected with different areas of the cerebral cortex, especially with the temporal (memory), parietal (orientation in space) and frontal lobes of the brain (prediction, associative thinking, intelligence).

It is time to consider their interaction in the formation of emotions, their role and significance.

Nerve centers of emotions.

The life of most people is aimed at reducing suffering and extracting as much pleasure as possible. Pleasure or suffering depends on the activity of certain brain structures.

American physiologist Walter Cannon in the 30s. came to the conclusion that the flow of excitation arising from the action of emotional stimuli in the thalamus is split into two parts: to the cortex, which causes the subjective manifestation of emotions (feeling of fear or confidence), and to Hpt, which is accompanied by vegetative shifts characteristic of emotions. Later, these ideas were refined and detailed in connection with the discovery of the role of the limbic system in the formation of emotions. In the center of this system is Hpt, which owns a key position, and outside the frontal and temporal areas of the cortex interact with the limbic system. The reticular formation of the brain stem maintains the level of activity of the limbic system necessary for the functioning. The role of individual brain structures can be judged by the results of their stimulation through electrodes implanted in the brain tissue. Thanks to this method, extremely small areas of Hpt were identified, the stimulation of which led to the appearance of feeding or defensive behavior, accompanied by characteristic vegetative reactions. Such structures can be defined as motivational. The most common neurotransmitter for them is norepinephrine. When using this method, areas of the brain were found, the stimulation of which was accompanied by the appearance of positive and negative emotions. Positive emotions were obtained by stimulating the nuclei of the septum (euphoria), the limbic structures of the midbrain, and the anterior nuclei of the thalamus. Dopamine and endorphins are the main contenders for the role of a mediator of emotionally positive structures. An increase in the formation of endorphins leads to an improvement in mood, removal of emotional stress, reduction or elimination of pain. Negative emotions were obtained with irritation of the tonsils and some areas of Hpt. The mediator for these structures is serotonin.

In addition to motivational and emotional structures, there are informational structures. These include the hippocampus, with irritation of which confusion is noted, a temporary loss of contact with the doctor. According to the type of mediator, such structures most often turn out to be cholinergic.

Emotions are "launched" by the brain, but are realized with the participation of the ANS. Indicators of emotional reactions are changes in blood pressure, heart rate and respiration, temperature, pupil width, saliva secretion, etc. At the same time, the sympathetic department mobilizes the energy and resources of the body.

As you know, emotions do not arise by themselves, but everything begins with the needs of the body. The needs of the body are primarily perceived by the chemoreceptors of the bloodstream and special central chemoreceptors, which are represented in the central nervous system. Some areas of the reticular formation of the brain stem and Hpt are also especially rich in them.

Irritated areas are excited. Excitation is addressed to the limbic formations of the brain. The latter combine such morphological formations as the septum, amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, fornix of the brain and mamillary bodies. The exit of hypothalamic excitations to these brain structures is carried out through the medial bundle of the forebrain. An analysis of the functions of the anterior neocortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and Hpt indicates that the interaction of these brain structures is necessary for the organization of behavior.

With increased hypothalamic excitation, the latter through the anterior nuclei of the thalamus begins to spread to the anterior sections of the cerebral cortex.

Physiological bases of emotions.

Emotions are a necessary foundation for the daily and creative life of people. They are caused by the action on the body, on the receptors and, consequently, on the brain ends of the analyzers of certain environmental stimuli associated with the conditions of existence. The characteristic physiological processes that occur during emotions are reflexes of the brain. They are caused by the frontal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres through the autonomic centers, the limbic system and the reticular formation. The excitation from these centers spreads along the autonomic nerves, which directly change the functions of the internal organs, cause the entry of hormones, mediators and metabolites into the blood, affecting the autonomic innervation of the organs.

Excitation of the anterior group of nuclei of the hypothalamic region directly behind the optic chiasm causes parasympathetic reactions characteristic of emotions, and sympathetic reactions of the posterior and lateral groups of nuclei. It should be taken into account that in some systems of the body during emotions, sympathetic influences of the hypothalamic region, for example, in the cardiovascular region, prevail, and in others, parasympathetic ones, for example, in the digestive. Excitation of the hypothalamic region causes not only vegetative, but also motor reactions. Due to the predominance of the tone of the sympathetic nuclei in it, it increases the excitability of the cerebral hemispheres and thereby affects thinking.

When the sympathetic nervous system is excited, motor activity increases, and when the parasympathetic nervous system is excited, it decreases. As a result of excitation of the sympathetic system and an increase in plastic tone, numbness of the muscles, a reaction of dying, and freezing of the body in a certain posture, catalepsy, may occur.

Theories of emotions.

Everyone knows the visceral changes that accompany emotional arousal - changes in the rhythm of the heart, respiration, in the motility of the stomach and intestines, etc. For at least a hundred years, scientists have known that the brain is in charge of all these changes. But how the brain produces these changes, and how they relate to the emotions a person experiences, has been, and remains, a matter of controversy.

The cingulate gyrus is a relatively large brain structure, but its anterior part plays the most significant role in the clinic of neuropsychiatric disorders. The latter includes cortical fields 23, 24 and 25 according to Brodmann. In clinical practice, the defeat of these zones is reflected in motivation and movements, since it has developed connections with the dorsal and ventral striatum (striate body). Previously, researchers have found significant differences in cytoarchitectonics between the anterior granular cortex (area 32) and the posterior agranular cortex (area 24). Currently, four functional zones of the cingulate gyrus are distinguished: viscero-motor (including area 32), cognitive-effector and motor (area 24) and sensory, if we consider the cingulate gyrus gradually shifting from the front to the back. In animals, the cingular cortex is a limbic region associated with vocalization in primates in response to appropriate stimulation. The cingular gyrus is involved in processes of autonomic activity, including changes in the rate and depth of respiration, pulse rate, sexual activity, and automated oral responses. "Circumferential epilepsy" is characterized by short episodes of loss (change) of consciousness, with manifestations of vocalisms, rapid motor activity (axial flexion and limb tension), as well as automatisms of gestures. In humans, the cingulate gyrus is involved in nociceptive processes, possibly related to thalamic afferentation, and extends to affective responses including fear, euphoria, depression, and aggression. , manifested in response to stimulation and externally expressed in a certain behavior: disinhibition, hypersexuality, tic-like movements, and obsessive-compulsive activity. Damage to the anterior cingulate gyrus underlies emotional flattening and decreased motivation; a combination of such symptoms is sometimes referred to as the "frontal lobe syndrome". Activation of area 25 (popliteal cingular zone) is noted in severe depression. Work on deep stimulation of these structures or its surgical excision is underway in terms of the treatment of severe depression. This area has reciprocal connections with other frontal areas, with the hypothalamus, ventral striatum, amygdala, and autonomic outlets to the brainstem.

The posterior part of the cingulate gyrus has been studied to a lesser extent than the anterior one. Probably, the posterior part of the cingular gyrus is less involved in motor functioning and more in visuospatial functions, learning and memory processes. Recently, projections of the cingular gyrus on the base of the brain (subiculum) have been shown. The posterior cingular area passes into the area of the parietal cortex, as a result of which it is possibly related to self-consciousness, and the structures responsible for this phenomenon (the precuneus of the cerebral hemispheres).