A global, multi-level economic system that unites national economies.

All countries have different volumes of natural resources, their own characteristics of the labor market and indicators of economic development. Because of this, an international division of labor is formed, which should be considered most widely. The distribution of labor resources depends not only on the amount of wages, but also on the availability of minerals, as well as the climatic characteristics of regions on the territory of individual states.

Thus, a basis arises for the emergence of a set of national and private farms belonging to different countries, but participating in mutual trade and exchange transactions. If there are no gas and oil fields in Europe, then the leadership of European countries buys hydrocarbon raw materials from Russia or the countries of the Middle East and Africa. At the same time, the insufficient development of the own production base of states rich in natural resources becomes the reason for the purchase of machinery and equipment from Western countries.

Such activities are regulated by international and domestic legislation, which regulates the rights and obligations of participants in common economic processes. To all this is added a system of international settlements. The priority of the Western currency, in particular, the US dollar, has long been highlighted in it, which is reflected in the financial systems of other states.

Subjects of the world economy

The presence of international market relations gives rise to the need for the existence of appropriate institutions for the interaction of economic and financial structures of different countries with each other. Because of this, there were and are currently functioning:

international universal and specialized economic organizations;
transnational corporations that own production facilities located in different countries;
transnational banks;
international commodity and raw materials and currency exchanges.

Along with states and territories equated to them, internal subjects of various federal states, such structures act as subjects of the world economy.

Features of the development of the world economy

Throughout the history of mankind, there has been an uneven development of different cultures. As a result, some of them have taken a dominant position, while some have performed and continue to perform the role of a supplier of raw materials and labor. The regulation of these processes implies the practical use of the principles of integrity and hierarchy. States with a developed economic system and a high standard of living of the population cooperate and strive to establish strict control over all others. At this level, economic levers sometimes recede into the background, and only political mechanisms come to the fore, including the use of force to resolve previously provoked conflicts.

The main trend of the end of the 20th and the first quarter of the 21st century was the desire to streamline the interdependence and interconnection of national economic systems. In practice, this led to the creation of the European Union and the emergence of many new transnational corporations, the number of which has long ago exceeded 30 thousand. These processes have been called globalization. Their development in the world is uneven. This is due to the fact that not all countries are able to fit into global macroeconomic changes.

Back in the 90s of the 20th century, deindustrialization was actively going on in the West, which was the export of many production capacities outside the developed countries, mainly to Asian countries. As a result, a number of Asian countries, primarily China, have been able to increase their GDP. At the first stage, through the creation of a huge commodity mass, and then through the development of high-tech production.

Net international trade is inseparable from the use of commercial policy methods, which are not limited to market mechanisms alone. An example of the integration of economic and political institutions is the so-called sanctions war that has been going on between Western countries and Russia over the past five years.

Another lever for managing the international economy is the system of balance of payments. Within their framework, the expediency of conducting certain international transactions is identified. A special place here is played by long-term contracts.

Net trade, commercial policy and balance sheet management are sections of the world economy. Their peculiarity is that it is impossible to draw clear boundaries between them, just as it is impossible to separate the sphere of economics and pure politics.

The lecture notes contain theoretical and practical aspects of the formation of the world economy and international economic relations. The following are considered: the essence, origin, subjects and main trends in the development of the world economy and international economic relations, theories of international trade, revealing the principles of optimal participation of countries in international trade, pricing, instruments of state regulation of the country's participation in international trade, TNCs and TNB. The processes of formation of international economic integrations, free economic zones, as well as international economic organizations are analyzed. Designed for students in the master's program, direction 40.04.01 "Jurisprudence".

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by the LitRes company.

World economy and international economic relations: concept, evolution, participants

1.1. The concept and participants of the world economy and international economic relations

World economy(world economy) - a set of national economies interconnected by a system of international division of labor, international economic relations.

International Economic Relations (IER)- a set of reimbursable relations between individual countries, integration associations, international corporations regarding the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods and services.

The main forms of international economic relations: international (world) trade in goods and services; international movement of capital; international labor migration; international currency and settlement relations and others.

Participants in the global economy- national states, individuals and legal entities engaged in international economic activity, international economic integration, transnational corporations and transnational banks, international organizations.

Objects of the world economy- goods and services migrating within the world economy.

The world economy as a whole was formed by the beginning of the 20th century. due to the addition of the world market with the international movement of loan and entrepreneurial capital, the creation of a system of exploitation by the Western powers of the colonial periphery. The basis of the gradual formation of the world economy was the world market, the formation of which took place in the 15th-18th centuries, but especially intensively from the middle of the 19th century, when the most developed Western countries switched to machine production. The transition to machine production contributed to the development of the world market into the world economy. Along with the exchange of goods, international production relations for the manufacture of finished goods were significantly developed, which became possible on the basis of the growing movement of capital. The basis for the formation of international economic relations, and then the formation of the world economy, was the international division of labor.

International division of labor (MRI)- the continuation of the division of labor within the country, which is the specialization of individual countries in the production of specific goods.

MRI can develop in two directions:

The reverse side of the international division of labor is international cooperation.

International cooperation - establishing permanent links between producing countries and purchasing countries for the exchange of specialized goods.

1.2. Stages of development of the modern world economy

The world economy began to take shape in connection with the Great geographical discoveries (XV - XVI centuries), which led to the development of international economic relations, primarily international trade.

In the process of development of the modern world economy, the following stages are distinguished:

The world economy is the result of a long evolution of productive forces, their internationalization. During its existence, it has undergone quite serious changes. Today, the world economy is a complex economic system in which the reproduction of the total social product in the world takes place.

All countries participating in the international division of labor, and therefore in the world economy, are interconnected. Changes in production that occur in some countries are reflected in one form or another in the production of other countries.

1.3. Groups of countries in the world economy

A number of economic indicators are used to assess the level of economic development of a country.: GDP / per capita, it is by this indicator that the IMF classifies the countries of the world into groups; production of basic types of goods per capita (electricity per capita, chemical fibers per capita); sectoral structure of the national economy (share of the manufacturing industry in GDP, and especially engineering and chemical industry in the country's GDP); indicators evaluating the level and quality of life of the population (life expectancy, provision of housing for the population, number of hospital beds per 10,000 people); indicators of economic efficiency (labor productivity in general and separately in industry and agriculture, material consumption per unit of GDP, etc.); the structure of the country's exports and imports; financial indicators (is the country more of a lender or borrower).

Based on macroeconomic indicators, international organizations such as the UN, the World Bank, the IMF classify most of the countries that are their members into groups.

For example, the World Bank classifies countries according to the level of economic development (GNI / per capita) into 4 groups, the UN identifies three groups of countries: industrialized (industrial) countries; developing countries (they used to be called "third world countries"); countries with economies in transition.

The role of a country or group of countries in the world economy is assessed by comparing the total GDP calculated for the year.

However, to get an idea of the level of development of countries, these indicators should be divided by the population of the respective countries. GDP per capita gives an idea of the amount of goods and services that a country produces per inhabitant of the country.

Developed countries play the largest role in the development of the world economy – according to IMEMO RAS for 2016, their share in global GDP is 43.4%. Among the developed countries, the United States is especially distinguished, whose share in world GDP is 15.7%, the EU countries - 16.6%, Japan - 4.4%.

The share of developing countries is 49.7%, including China - 17.6%, India - 7.4%, Brazil - 2.7%. The share of countries with economies in transition is 6.9%, including Russia - 3.0%.

1.4. The main trends in the development of the modern world economy

The main feature of the modern world economy is the strengthening of interrelations and interdependencies between individual countries, the focus on solving more and more complex problems, which is reflected in the internationalization and globalization of the world economy.

The main form of internationalization- international economic integration, that is, the interpenetration of individual elements of the economy of one country into the economy of other countries. All countries are participants in one global production process and depend on each other.

Regionalization - the process of interpenetration into the economy, which begins, as a rule, at the level of individual regions, gradually expanding and covering neighboring countries.

The most developed integrations are the European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Asia-Pacific Economic Community (APEC), etc.

The changes that have taken place in the world have led to a qualitatively new nature of ties and relations between all countries, called globalization.

Globalization– the general interdependence of all subjects of the world economy in the conditions of an open system of economic, socio-political and cultural relations based on modern information technologies.

In the process of globalization, information, innovation, production and financial networks are being formed.

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Alla Valerievna Delyatitskaya
World Economy and International Economic Relations

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From the author

At present, no country can effectively develop without participation in international trade, in the movement of capital and labor migration, in integration processes. The changes taking place in the world economy affect the development of national economies and affect the interests of different countries. In this regard, there is a growing interest in the study of new phenomena in the world economy, patterns and trends in the development of international economic relations.

An analysis of trends in the development of the world economy and individual regions makes it possible for each country to develop its own concept of inclusion in the world economy, to determine the degree of participation in the international division of labor.

The abstract of lectures gives an idea of the world economy as part of the market economy theory, which studies the patterns of interaction between economic entities of different countries in the field of international exchange of goods, services, and the movement of factors of production.

The purpose of studying the discipline "World Economy and International Economic Relations"- the formation of knowledge about the world economy, its resources, the main development trends.

The objectives of the study of the discipline "World Economy and International Economic Relations": getting an idea of the country's participation in the international division of labor; getting an idea of the international migration of capital; understanding the role of free economic zones in the global economy; familiarity with the methods of regulation of international trade; getting an idea of integration processes at the regional level.

The discipline "World Economy and International Economic Relations" refers to elective disciplines, based on the knowledge gained by students in the study of basic courses.

The material and knowledge of the discipline "World Economy and International Relations" can be used in the future when writing a master's thesis, as well as in the subsequent practical activities of the graduate.

As a result of studying the discipline "World Economy and International Economic Relations", a master's student must master the following set of competencies: Competence (GPC-3) - the ability to put into practice the acquired skills and abilities in the organization of research work.

As a result of studying the discipline, the undergraduate must:

know: the essence, participants and trends in the development of the world economy and international economic relations; classification of countries in the world economy; forms of regulation of foreign economic activity; features of regional associations of countries; the essence of international monetary and settlement relations;

be able to: reasonedly express thoughts; calculate and evaluate the main macroeconomic indicators used for international comparisons;

own: special terminology; principles and methods for assessing the degree of participation of national economies in the world economy.

Lecture 1
World economy and international economic relations: concept, evolution, participants

1.1. The concept and participants of the world economy and international economic relations

World economy(world economy) - a set of national economies interconnected by a system of international division of labor, international economic relations.

International Economic Relations (IER)- a set of reimbursable relations between individual countries, integration associations, international corporations regarding the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods and services.

Objects of the world economy- goods and services migrating within the world economy.

International division of labor (MRI)- the continuation of the division of labor within the country, which is the specialization of individual countries in the production of specific goods.

MRI can develop in two directions:

The reverse side of the international division of labor is international cooperation.

International cooperation - establishing permanent links between producing countries and purchasing countries for the exchange of specialized goods.

1.2. Stages of development of the modern world economy

In the process of development of the modern world economy, the following stages are distinguished:

1.3. Groups of countries in the world economy

Based on macroeconomic indicators, international organizations such as the UN, the World Bank, the IMF classify most of the countries that are their members into groups.

The role of a country or group of countries in the world economy is assessed by comparing the total GDP calculated for the year.

The share of developing countries is 49.7%, including China - 17.6%, India - 7.4%, Brazil - 2.7%. The share of countries with economies in transition is 6.9%, including Russia - 3.0%.

1.4. The main trends in the development of the modern world economy

Regionalization - the process of interpenetration into the economy, which begins, as a rule, at the level of individual regions, gradually expanding and covering neighboring countries.

The changes that have taken place in the world have led to a qualitatively new nature of ties and relations between all countries, called globalization.

Globalization– the general interdependence of all subjects of the world economy in the conditions of an open system of economic, socio-political and cultural relations based on modern information technologies.

In the process of globalization, information, innovation, production and financial networks are being formed.

Lecture 2
Resources of the world economy

2.1. Natural resource potential of the world economy

The functioning of national economies and the entire world economy is based on economic resources (factors of production) - natural, labor, capital (in the form of real capital, that is, in the form of means of production, and financial, that is, in monetary form), entrepreneurial, as well as scientific ( scientific, technical, informational knowledge). Together, economic resources form the potential of the national economy or a region of the world, or the entire world economy.

Natural resource potential (natural resources) of the world economy diverse. It includes energy, land and soil, water, forest, biological (flora and fauna), mineral (minerals), climatic and recreational resources.

Natural resources are a necessary, but not a prerequisite for economic development. Achievements of scientific and technological progress lead to the fact that the impact of the natural resource factor on the economy of developed countries is noticeably weakening. In recent decades, countries that lack the necessary minerals (Japan, South Korea, Singapore) have developed rapidly. But ceteris paribus, the presence of rich and diverse natural resources gives the countries - their owners - additional advantages.

Most often, natural resources are identified with mineral resources (coal, oil, natural gas, metal ores, non-metal raw materials - phosphates, potassium salts, asbestos, etc.). Often, due to the special importance of fuel, a combination of "mineral raw materials and fuel" is used.

The world's mineral reserves are distributed extremely unevenly among the countries of the world. For example, the member countries of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) account for 71.6% of the world's proven oil reserves, the countries of the Middle East - 47.7%, the countries of North America - 33.1%, Africa - 7.6 %, to Russia - 6.1%. The world provision of current production with reliable oil reserves is only 52.5 years.

The world's natural gas resources are concentrated in three states - Russia, Iran and Qatar. These countries account for 48.7% of the world's proven reserves. OPEC countries have more than 50.5%. The world coverage of current production with proven reserves is 54.1 years.

Significant changes have been taking place in the global oil market since 2014. High oil prices, which had persisted for the previous decade, began to decline sharply. This is due to an increase in the efficiency of oil consumption, an increase in exploration of new fields and production. Increasingly, renewable energy sources have been used. Oil consumption has decreased in developed countries, other countries show an increase in oil consumption, but not as fast as it was before. The shale revolution in the United States and the country's lifting of the oil export ban in 2015 for the first time in forty years made a significant contribution, which led to an increase in the supply of oil. An important factor that influenced the oil market was the decline in demand for all types of commodities from China.

The situation in the natural gas market developed in a similar way. Its production in the USA is growing. This country has already become the largest supplier of natural gas.

Iron ore reserves are of great importance for the production of ferrous metals. Brazil, Australia, Canada, Russia, China, USA, India, Sweden are the most provided with iron ore. The provision of the world economy with this type of raw material is 250 years old.

Bauxites are essential for the production of non-ferrous metals. Their predicted reserves amount to 50 billion tons, including 20 billion tons of explored reserves. Guinea (42% of world reserves), Australia (18.5%), Brazil (6.3% ), Jamaica (4.7%), Cameroon (3.8%) and India (2.8%). In terms of production scale (42.6 million tons), Australia ranks first. Bauxite production reaches 80 million tons per year, thus, the availability of reserves is 250 years. In Russia, bauxite reserves are relatively small.

Geological reserves of copper ores are estimated at 860 million tons, of which 450 million tons are explored (in India, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Congo, USA, Russia, Canada). With the current production volume - 8 million tons per year - the explored reserves of copper ores will be enough for about 55 years.

Of the total surface area of the Earth (510 million square kilometers), 149 million square kilometers fall on land. km, and the rest is occupied by the seas and oceans. The total area of the world's land fund (land area minus the ice deserts of the Arctic and Antarctic) is 134 million square meters. km. In the structure of the world land fund, 11% falls on cultivated land; 23% - to meadows and pastures; 30% - for forests; 3% - on anthropogenic landscapes (settlements, industrial zones, transport lines); 33% - on unproductive lands (deserts, swamps and extreme areas with low temperatures or in the mountains). Currently, the total area of agricultural land is 48.1 million square meters. km (4810 million hectares), including arable land - 1340 million hectares, meadows and pastures - 3365 million hectares.

The largest arable lands (in million ha) are: USA (185), India (160), Russia (134), China (95), Canada (46), Kazakhstan (36), Ukraine (34).

A negative trend that is developing in the world economy is land degradation. For example, due to erosion, 6–7 million hectares are annually taken out of agricultural circulation, and bogging and salinization take another 1.5 million hectares out of land use. A serious threat to the land fund in 60 countries of the world is the desertification of previously cultivated lands.

The total water reserves on Earth are 1386 million cubic meters. km, but 96.5% of the planet's water resources are in the salty waters of the oceans and 1% in salty groundwater. Fresh water accounts for only 2.5% of the total volume of the hydrosphere, and if we exclude from the calculation the polar ice, which is still practically not used, then only 0.3% of the total amount of water on earth remains at the disposal of mankind. World water consumption is growing. Rivers remain the main source of fresh water, with annual resources of 47,000 cubic meters. km, but less than half of this amount can actually be used. Thus, the volume of world water consumption has approached 1/4 of the planet's water resources that can be used.

The main consumer of water in the world is agriculture (69%), followed by industry (21%), utilities (6%) and reservoirs.

Forested areas worldwide reach 40.1 million square meters. km (including 25–28 million sq. km of forests most suitable for exploitation), Russia - 8.1, Brazil - 3.2, Canada - 2.6, USA - 2.0 million sq. km. km. There is a tendency to reduce the area of forests. So far, the forests of the Asian part of Russia, Canada, the Amazon and Congo river basins have remained relatively untouched. The total stock of standing timber in all forests of the world is 340–370 billion cubic meters. m. Russia ranks first in the world in terms of wood reserves (23% of world reserves).

As already mentioned, natural resources are distributed extremely unevenly between countries. Only 20–25 countries have more than 5% of the world's reserves of any one type of mineral raw material. Only a few of the largest countries in the world (Russia, USA, Canada, China, South Africa and Australia) have most of its species in sufficient quantities for industrial development. In fact, no country has stocks of all types of mineral raw materials necessary for a modern economy and cannot do without its import. Thus, Russia, with all the diversity of its mineral resources and their significant volume, is forced to import bauxite, tin, and manganese. The United States fully meets its needs with its own mineral raw materials for only 22 types, and such types of raw materials as uranium, tungsten, chromium, manganese are imported. In general, the United States imports 15-20% (in value terms) of the minerals it needs. EU member countries import 70-80% of the consumed mineral raw materials, Japan - 90-95%.

In the modern world, there are significant differences between the natural resources available in individual countries and the volume of their consumption. According to some estimates, the United States, which has 4.5% of the world's population and approximately 20% of the planet's mineral resources, consumes up to 40% of the world's natural resources, primarily fuel and raw materials. At the same time, the United States accounts for about 1/3 of the world's mining products. Another 30% of the resources consumed are in Western Europe, Canada and Japan, which together have 9% of the world's population and approximately 20% of natural resources. Thus, developed countries, which have approximately 40% of mineral resources, consume 70% of these resources.

At the same time, developing countries (including China and Vietnam), where about 60% of the world's population lives and up to 35% of mineral resources are concentrated, consume about 16% of these resources.

In all countries with a developed mining industry, including Russia, the largest and most cost-effective deposits are being depleted. The problem of providing raw materials should be solved not on the basis of an accelerated increase in the volume of geological exploration, but through the use of resource-saving and energy-saving technologies.

2.2. Scientific resources of the world economy

Scientific resources are determined the ability of a country to carry out research and development work (R&D).

The scientific and technical potential of the country, its state and development trends are influenced by two groups of factors:

The most important indicators characterizing the scientific resources of countries and groups of countries: (1) the share of R&D spending in the country's GDP; (2) the share of budget allocations for R&D in total government spending; (3) the number of specialists employed in science; (4) the number of international awards for outstanding scientific achievements; (5) the frequency of references in scientific papers to the work of researchers from a given country; (6) the share of science-intensive products in GDP and industrial output; (7) the share of the given country in the world market of high technologies.

There is no rigid relationship between the level of a country's development and the share of its spending on science. In general, developed countries spend relatively more financial resources on R&D than developing countries, and large industrial countries spend more on science than small ones. But much depends on the historical conditions of the given country. In a number of countries, private firms play a decisive role in financing R&D. For Russian science until the mid-90s. 20th century was characterized by a centralized system of financing (the share of public spending was 93% of the costs). However, the volume of budget appropriations in the second half of the 1990s fell sharply, and as a result, the share of budget funds amounted to 60.2%.

Economic efficiency of the scientific and technical sphere is the ratio of the increase in the output of science-intensive products to R&D expenditures.

Another important indicator is the number of annually issued copyright certificates for inventions, or patents. Nobel Prizes in various areas of research play a significant role in assessing achievements.

The scientific resources of the world economy are concentrated in a small number of countries. The US accounts for about half of all financial resources allocated to R&D. Other centers include the countries of Western Europe, Japan and Russia.

World economy and international economic relations. At 2 o'clock Ed. Khasbulatova R.I.

M.: 2006. - Part 1 - 671s., Part 2 - 718s.

The textbook reveals the general theory of the world economy and international economic relations in the conditions of modern global capitalism, the international movement of factors of production (foreign investment, population and labor, international trade in goods and services, etc.). Part I presents the main economic schools, on the basis of which the dominant currents of world economic thought were formed, much attention is paid to the issues of methodology and theory, the cyclical movement of the world economy, the features of economic development in the centers of the world economy, developing and new capitalist (transforming) countries. The modern tendencies of world economic development are analyzed. For students, graduate students, teachers, researchers, as well as for everyone who is interested in the problems of the world economy and international economic relations. Khasbulatov Ruslan Imranovich - Doctor of Economics. Sci., Professor, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Head of the Department of World Economy of the Russian Academy of Economics. G.V. Plekhanov, Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR from 1991 to 1993.

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Part 2.

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PART 1.
Foreword
Tasks and features of the textbook "World Economy and International Economic Relations" 29
Section I Theoretical Foundations of the World Economy and International Economic Relations
Chapter 1. Categories, methodology and features of studying the subject of the world economy and international economic relations 37
1.1. Main categories (concepts), tasks and content of the subject 37
Categories of the world economy and international economic relations. The world economy and the world market as objects of study. Transformation of market processes in the international sphere. Qualitative differences between national and world markets. The structure of the world market. Contradictions of dynamics. Subject of study of international economic relations. Object of study. Hierarchy. Other "borderline" items.
The role of economic science and the operation of economic laws. Economic law. The need to take into account the American and European experience. Economic science and economic policy. Competitive economic theories and models of economic policy. Ethics. Peaceful settlement of conflicts and fair negotiations. Subject "world economy"
1.2. Subject "International Economic Relations" as part of the subject "International Relations" 56
The concept of the subject "International Relations". The new school is international political economy or international economics. Political theories related to the concepts of international relations: neorealism and neoliberalism
1.3. Methodology and methods in scientific knowledge 63
Ancient authors about economics. Methodology and methods. Rene Descartes on the methods of scientific knowledge. Modern methods
1.4. Types of analysis of the world economy and international economic relations (IER) 69
Microeconomic analysis. Macroeconomic analysis. Regional approach. Global integrity. The process of formation of unity and integrity. Cooperation and interdependence. Internationalization, globalization and the trend towards plutocratic concentration of wealth
1.5. International economic relations: modern theories and concepts 75
International political economy. The theory of "collective action" M. Olson. The theory of international regimes. State and market in the theory of international economic relations. Globalization, TNCs and the state. Neo-Marxist political economy of international relations
1.6. Modern world economy - global economy 85
Tendencies towards the unity of the world and civilizations. Stages of globalization or spontaneous unification processes? The content of the phenomenon. The concept of "financial globalization"
1.7. Features and factors of the world economy and international economic relations at the beginning of the XXI century 92
First feature. The second feature. Third feature. Fourth feature. Fifth feature. The sixth feature. Crisis of global neoliberalism. Approaches to determining the prospects for international economic development in the context of the globalization of the world. Action of general tendencies
Resume 100
Security questions 101
Essay topics 102
Chapter 2. The system of the world economy and international economic relations 103
2.1. The specifics of the interaction of national and international development factors 103
Theoretical aspect
2.2. Information technology revolution 105
Impact features. Radical modernization of the industrial base 2.3. International division of labor and world economy 108
The impact of the processes of the international division of labor (MRT). Contents of MRI. essence of MRI. Types of division of labor. Types of division of labor. Impact of MRI on Factors of Production
2.4. International specialization and cooperation of production: essence and forms 112
Concept. Content, character and directions of development of MRI 2.5. International industrial cooperation 114
General characteristics. Forms MP K. Forms (types)
agreements in the field of MP K. International competitiveness. Interdependence of national economies
2.6. The role of information and communication technologies 118 General characteristics. Consolidation in the ICT sector in the US economy
2.7. Structure of an open economy 124
Sectors of activity in national statistics. Balances. The Need for a Universal Basis for International Comparisons
2.8. United Nations System of National Accounts 126
The problem of international comparisons of economic indicators. Foreign economic operations of the national economy
2.9. Main macroeconomic indicators 128
Market balance. National income (ND). Net domestic product (NDP). Gross domestic product
(GDP) and gross national product (GNP). net transfers. How is GNP different from GDP. World domestic product (GDP). factor income. Exclusion of re-counting. The value added of the gross product. Methods for calculating GDP and GNP. GDP and GNP per capita. World gross product (GDP). Sectoral structure of the economy. Production of basic products per capita. The level and quality of life of the population. Prices and GNP deflator. Price and value. Price index. Rates of growth. Inflation rate
2.10. Budget 138
Balanced budget. Balanced budget multiplier. Budget surplus
2.11. Labor, employment, wages 138
Work. Work force. Share of labor force in the total number
this population group. Labor market. The commodity "labor power". share of labor. Wage. Wage standard
2.12. Taxes 140
Corporation tax. Average tax rate. Value Added Tax. inflation tax. Pigou tax
2.13. Economic policy 143
Economic policy of the state. "New microeconomics" (new microeconomics). "New-new microeconomics" (new new microeconomics). Council of Economic Advisers
of Economic Advisers). Purchasing power parity (PPP). Purposes of multilateral comparisons
2.14. Balance of payments 147
2.15. Structure and structure of the world economy 148
The structure of the world economy. The developed countries. Countries with economies in transition. Developing countries. The structure of the world economy. Market economy. market mechanism. Central problems of the economic system
2.16. World market 154
Concept. The main features (features) of the world market. International (world) trade
2.17. Equilibrium in the world market: supply and demand .... 156
Equilibrium conditions in the world market. Aggregate global demand. Aggregate world supply
2.18. International economic regulation 157
World economic policy
2.19. Classification of countries by subgroups 161
The developed countries. Countries with economies in transition (transforming countries). Developing countries.
Countries are net creditors. Countries are net debtors. Countries - exporters of fuel. Countries - importers of fuel. Least Developed Countries
2.20. The factor of geopolitics in the world economy and international economic relations 163
From unipolar to multipolar world. Regional-continental systems. Changing the role (and ratio) of the "poles". Developing world. Asymmetric development of the world economy
2.21. Classification of countries and groups of countries 168
Resume 176
Security questions 181
Essay topics 182
Chapter 3. Theories of the world economy and international economic relations 183
3.1. Economic theory in the period of early capitalism 183
3.2. Classical School of Economics 184
3.3. Historical School of Economics 192
3.4. Austrian School of Economics 193
3.5. Lausanne School of Economics 194
3.6. Neoclassical economic theories 196
Neoclassical theory of economic growth. neoclassical synthesis. Theory of value
3.7. Cambridge School 202
3.8. Chicago School 202
3.9. Radical Economics 203
3.10. Keynesian Economics 206
3.11. The Crisis of Classical and Neoclassical Theories and the Emergence of Keynesianism 208
3.12. Monetary Concepts of Neoclassical Theory 214
3.13. International monetarism 217
3.14. Theories of economic growth, neoclassical synthesis, macro- and microeconomics 222
The concept of economic growth. Harrod's Economic Growth Model - House of Macaw
3.15. Anti-crisis policy is the central element of Keynesian economic policy 226
3.16. The problem of economic growth and modification of the business cycle 230
Phases of the cycle and its movement. About the number of cycles. Plurality of business cycle theories. External and internal factors. Keynesian cartoonist. Interaction between multiplier and accelerator
3.17. International traffic cycle 237
Synchronization of cyclic processes. How cycles propagate. International cycle policy. International coordination. Implementation of international economic cooperation. The problem of internal stability in a world experiencing depression.
International investments. International cooperation in the monetary sphere. UN Expert Group Proposals.
A fragment of the analysis of the debt crisis and its consequences.
The advent of global monetarism
Resume 250
Security questions 254
Essay topics 255
Chapter 4. World outlook bases of spatial modeling of the world economy 256
methodological aspect. Historical aspect. Transfer from
planar orientation to spatial
Security questions 269
Essay topics 269
Literature for section I 270
Section II. World economic development in the new millennium. Centers and peripheries
Chapter 5 The Triad Economy: US-European Union-Japan 273
5.1. General characteristics of the world economic situation (2001-2005) 273
Question theory. Some features of the development of the United States. Economy of the EU countries. Economic development of Japan. Integration into the world economy of China and India
5.2. Dynamics of the new economic cycle 285
5.3. The US economy in 2001-2005 295
General characteristics and features of development. US economic recovery. Increasing interest
Fed rates. Labor productivity in the US and EU countries
5.4. Economy of the European Union in 2001-2005 307
General characteristics and features of development. Economic dynamics in 2001-2005
5.5. A new stage in the development of the European Union 313
5.6. Economy of Sweden 315
General information. Brief historical excursion. Economic development of Sweden in the XX century. Sweden and the European Union. Unemployment, labor productivity and wages. Government intervention in the economy. Contemporary
position of the Swedish economy. Swedish version of capitalism. Sweden in international relations. Export and import of Sweden. Sweden and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Sweden in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). United Nations Development Program Human Development Potential Index (HDPI) and Sweden
5.7. Economy of Poland 331
General characteristics of the economy. System transformation processes. The main problems of the economy. Results of the transformation. Poland in the European Union
5.8. Economy of Japan 344
General characteristics and features of development. A Fragment of Japan's Economic Policy: Deregulation. Problems of Economic Growth in the First Years of the 21st Century
5.9. Factors affecting economic growth 352
Prices. External payments
5.10. Comparative analysis of countries and groups of countries in terms of production growth per capita 354
5.11. Negative risk factors 357
5.12. Inflation at the beginning of the XXI century in 361
Resume 365
Security questions 370
Essay topics 370
Chapter 6. Economies of developing countries 371
6.1. General characteristics and features of development in modern conditions 371
Country classification
6.2. The decline in the economic development of developing countries in the context of the global crisis in 2001-2002. 374
Investment policy in developing countries
6.3. New Growth in the PC Group: Contradictions of Dynamics and Perspectives 378
6.4. Asian Economy 388
The economic situation in the late 1990s - the beginning of the XXI century.
6.4.1. China's economy in the 21st century 392
General information. International economic relations. Liberalization policy: fulfillment of obligations to the WTO. Reforming the banking system. Sino-American trade tensions
6.4.2. Economic development of India 402
General information. The backlog of the traditional economy. Indian-American trade tensions
6.5. Economy of the Near and Middle East and North Africa 409
Classification of the countries of the region and their features. The economic situation in the late 1990s - the beginning of the XXI century. The impact of the war in Iraq on the region. Libya. Egypt. Syria. Jordan
6.5.1. Economic development of Saudi Arabia 416
General information
6.5.2. Growth of trade and economic relations of the USA and the European Union with the Arab countries 421
6.6. Tasks of modernization of the Arab countries: features of their solution 424
6.7. African economies 429
The economic situation in the late 1990s - the beginning of the XXI century. Regional structures of the continent. Socio-economic development of the countries of the subregion in the conditions of a dependent position in the world economy. African Development Strategies. The main problems of the Black Continent. Armed conflicts. Environment
6.8. Economy of Latin America and the Caribbean 450
The economic situation in the late 1990s - the beginning of the XXI century. Features of economic growth in Latin America and the Caribbean
6.9. Main reasons for low growth rates 458
Why is the liberal-monetary direction of economic policy destructive (dead end) for developing countries?
6.10. Belated Criticism of the Washington Consensus Doctrine 463
Industrialization and deindustrialization processes.
Variety of industrial development paths
Resume 471
Security questions 478
Essay topics 478
Chapter 7. Economy of countries - members of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 479
7.1. General characteristics of the economic development of the group in 1991-2005. 479
Geographical classification of countries - objects of study. General analysis of the economic development of the group. Carrying out systemic changes in the economy, including institutional and structural transformations
7.2. Conceptual approaches in reforming the economy 482
shock therapy program. Gradualism program
in economic reforms. Countries of Eastern and Central Europe. Countries of Southeast Europe
7.3. Crisis that could have been avoided 491
Contradictions in approaches to reforms. Socio-economic outcome of the reforms of the 1990s
7.4. CIS: features of the movement towards the formation of a capitalist economic system 497
Features of the economic state of the transforming states. Growth of CIS exports to developed countries. Socio-Economic Relations and Increasing Poverty
Resume 510
Security questions 512
Essay topics 513
Chapter 8. Population and labor in world economic development 514
8.1. Continental and Regional-Country Concentration of the Earth's Population: Growth Dynamics 514
8.2. Population and economic growth 518
Relationships between population growth and economic dynamics. demographic dynamism. The dynamism of innovation. dominance dynamism. Dynamism of social groups. Selected indicators of the relationship between the population and the standard of living of the population. Samuelson formula
8.3. Features of urbanization: urban growth, migration 523
Growth of cities. Forecasting indicators of urbanization
8.4. Population policy 525
Concepts. Demographic trap
8.5. Global labor market 527
General characteristics. Features of the labor market.
Labor force and its quality as a growth factor
8.6. Employment and unemployment 530
Employment. Unemployment. Full employment. Determination of the unemployment rate. Okun's Law and labor movement
in the job market. Unemployment in developed countries. Employment and Unemployment in Developing and Transforming Countries
8.7. Minimum wage 536
General characteristics. Wage Models
8.8. Poverty: the eternal problem 540
The concept of poverty. Poverty levels. Standard of living. Relationship between income distribution and inequality. Concepts, models, approaches
8.9. International poverty line 547
Concept. The degree of poverty and the Todaro model. First United Nations Decade for the Eradication of Poverty (1997-
2006). United Nations Development Program (UNDP)
8.10. Lorenz curve, GDP dynamics and "Argentine
phenomenon" 549
"Argentine Phenomenon" in Russia. Increasing Poverty in the Context of Globalization
8.11. Human Development 554
Statement of the problem and UN reports (UNDP). The content of the concept of "development of human potential". Human Development Index (HDI)
Resume 559
Security questions 561
Essay topics 562
Chapter 9. International labor migration 563
9.1. The concept and content of international labor migration of the labor force 563
Concept, essence. Common reasons for migrations. economic reasons. Krugman-Obstfeld plot
9.2. International legal norms in the field of labor migration 576
National and international legislation. The content of the system of measures to regulate migration
9.3. Immigrants from developing countries 579
9.4. Policies of developed countries regarding foreign labor force 580
Requirements for guest workers in Europe. regulation of immigration. USA: foreign workers. Regulation of immigration in Arab countries
Resume 589
Security questions 592
Essay topics 592
Chapter 10. International capital movement - foreign direct investment (FDI) 593
10.1. The nature of the international movement of capital 593
Concept. Investments. Reasons for the movement of capital in the form of direct investment
10.2. FDI inflows and outflows to the regions of the world: policy brief 598
FDI dynamics and indicators. UNCTAD methodology
10.3. TNCs: the formation of international production,
export of capital, goods and services 601
10.4. Country concentration of foreign direct investment 602
General characteristics. Asian countries. Latin America. African countries
10.5. FDI and the country's economic transnationality index 610
Changes in national regions of FDI regulation.
Factors Affecting FDI in Transition
economy. The impact of cross-border mergers and acquisitions on the international movement of financial resources
10.6. Mega Blocks: An Illustration of Financial Globalization 619
FDI index. FDI in Russia
10.7. Some features of the movement of international capital flows - FDI 624
Comparison of investment capital volumes
10.8. The need for equilibrium in the world capital market 629
Walras' rule (or Walras's law)
10.9. Forms of the international movement of capital. Capital structure 631
Forms. Capital structure
10.10. Reorientation of FDI towards the service sector 636
Reasons for the reorientation of FDI towards the service sector
10.11. Offshore operations for the provision of services 642
Two ways to carry out offshore operations. Offshoring: in-house production or outsourcing? Modern export services by country
10.12. Increasing the role of the state in international investment policy: changing investment regimes 651
Bilateral Treaties: Investment Treaties (BITs) and Double Tax Treaties (DTTs). System of International Investment Agreements (IIA): developed countries. The system of international investment agreements: developing countries. Coordination of the content of the IIA
Resume 660
Security questions 670
Essay topics 670
Literature for Section II 671

PART 2.
Section III. Integration in the global economy. Theory, development, politics
Chapter 11. Economic Integrations in the Modern World: Concepts, Development, Politics 39
11.1. Theory and content of economic integration 39
The concept of economic integration, its interpretation
11.2. Current trends in regionalization 41
Special Preconditions for European Regional Integration
11.3. Basic provisions of the theory of integration 45
11.4. Variety of forms of integration 50
11.5. European integrations 51
11.6. Essence of economic integration 53
Multi-tiered integration, sources of development
11.7. Regional and global integration 55
11.8. Types and forms of integration 56
Formation principles. Types. International regional organizations operating in Europe. Regional associations of states of Central and Eastern Europe and Asia
11.9. From simple to complex forms of international
economic integration 61
MPEI and free trade (economic, customs)
zones. Free Trade Zone (FTA). Customs Union (CU). Single (common) market. Economic Union (EU). Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)
11.10. Asian-East European type of integration.
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) 64
Emergence, development and decay. Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
11.11. Economic Cooperation Organization
and Development (OECD) 66
11.12. European Free Trade Association
(EFTA) 67
Resume 68
Security questions 70
Essay topics 71
Chapter 12. European Economic Community - European Union: Evolution, Institutions, Policies 72
12.1. The formation of a united Europe 72
Factors contributing to the emergence of the EEC. Conceptual foundations of the European Community. Personnel. Approaches of Jean Monnet. Schuman Declaration
12.2. Plan for the unification of Europe or the creation of a Common Market
(Shuman plan) 77
Basic principles of the Community. Treaty of Rome establishing the EEC
12.3. Relationships between the deepening of integration processes and the formation of conditions for a single foreign exchange market 82
Economic stages of the formation of the European Union
12.4. EU-EFTA Agreement on the European Economic Area (EEA) 84
12.5. New European integration dynamics after the failure of the socialist model of integration 85
The legislative framework
12.6. From the EEC to the European Union (EU) 88
Maastricht EEC-EU session
12.7. The principle of subsidiarity in the European Union 91
12.8. EU Lisbon Strategy 94
12.9. EU enlargement: 15 to 25 members of the Union 96
Copenhagen criteria
12.10. Schengen Agreement 97
12.11. The Constitution of the European Union and the attitude of the peoples towards it 98
12.12. The concept of Greater Europe by M. Emerson 100
Question history. What is Greater Europe? Common European spaces. institutions and organizations.
Greater Middle East. Model 1. Consent. Model 2. Passive involvement. Model 3. Active involvement. Model 4. Hostile involvement. Model 5. Regime change by force
12.13. European Union and its regions: features
interactions 110
European Regional Assembly. Transregional complexes. "Regional Europe" project. to unity through
diversity. Formation of the interaction mechanism. Grants
12.14. EU Regional Policy and EU Structural Funds 120
12.15. Common Agricultural Policy 122
12.16. Social policy 123
Resume 124
Security questions 128
Essay topics 130
Chapter 13. Integration processes in Asia, Africa and Latin America 131
13.1. Features of the formation of integration processes in the countries of Southeast Asia and the Pacific region 131
General trends
13.2. Integration processes in Asia 132
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
13.3. South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) 138
The idea of global integration in East Asia
13.4. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) 140
Organization of APEC activities
13.5. Integration processes in Arab countries 145
Arab Maghreb Union. Arab Cooperation Council (CAC). Cooperation Union for the Arab States of the Persian Gulf (GCC). European orientation
13.6. Integration groups in Africa 152
General characteristics. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Eastern and Southern African countries. Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA). South African Development Community (SADC). Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS). Central African Customs and Economic Union (UDEAC). Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa
13.7. Economic integration in America 166
Historical aspect. Private-corporate integration or American-Canadian type of economic integration. US-Canadian-Mexican Free Trade Agreement
Trade 1994 (NLFTA) (North American Free Trade Area - NAFTA). New Continental System. Transformations. Actions in the field of economic policy. Objectives of the Agreement
13.8. Other integration formations in America 175
Resume 177
Security questions 181
Essay topics 182
Literature for Section III 183
Section IV. International trade and trade policy
Chapter 14. Foreign Economic Relations and Economic Diplomacy 187
14.1. International trade and economic cooperation: historical aspect 187
The concept of international trade and economic cooperation. Historical aspect: evolution
14.2. Theoretical aspect of foreign economic relations 189
Concept. Foreign economic relations and centers of power in the world economy. Classification of foreign economic relations: reforms, structure and structure
14.3. Foreign economic operations: conceptual categories 195
14.4. Foreign economic policy and foreign economic relations 204
14.5. Foreign economic policy and economic diplomacy of states 206
Foreign economic policy of states, the mechanism of its formation. The content and experience of economic diplomacy. US Foreign Policy Mechanism
14.6. Economic diplomacy and technology of international negotiations 216
Concept. Negotiation process. The negotiation process as a variant of the decision-making process. Negotiations as an information process. The negotiation process as a method of managing the decision-making process based on the regulation of information. Negotiations as part of foreign economic strategy. The need for a "Code of Economic Negotiations"
Security questions 223
Essay topics 223
Chapter 15. Balance of payments and foreign economic relations of the country 224
15.1. General characteristics of the balance of payments 224
Concept. The content of the balance of payments. Transactions in balance of payments items. The basic principle. Use of balance of payments information. Items of the balance of payments: balance of current operations and balance of capital movements. The current balance of payments, or balance of current operations. Formation of balance of movement of capital. Basic balance. official reserves. Reserve funds
15.2. Standard model of the balance of payments and its structure 235
The concept and content of the standard model. Forecasting the Development of Foreign Trade Based on the Balance of Payments
15.3. Monetary model of the balance of payments 236
Resume 238
Security questions 239
Essay topics 240
Chapter 16 Modern International Trade: Theories and Development 241
16.1. Theories of international trade 241
The concept of international trade. The theory of mercantilism: principles. Principles of foreign trade. World economy and trade in the XVIII century. Free trading and the theory of Adam Smith (on freedom of trade and absolute advantages). The theory of relative (comparative) advantages, or Ricardo's one-factor model. Theory of the ratio of factors of production: the Heckscher-Ohlin model. Model of specific factors of foreign trade. Theory of the product life cycle. The theory of similarity of countries. The theory of comparative advantages and labor productivity factor. Balassa model. Standard model of foreign trade. Pragmatic Approaches
16.2. World trade and international cooperation 258
Increase in trade flows: trends. The benefits of free trade. Comparative advantage. New aspects of trading
16.3. International trading system 265
General characteristics, definition
16.4. World market and international trade 267
Economic growth and terms of trade. The problem of transfers: the impact on the terms of foreign trade. Ruining transfer. marginal propensity to import. trade deficit. Import and employment rate. Foreign trade and dependence of countries on the world market.
Export opportunities. Export production as a factor in increasing the profitability of companies. Risk distribution. Import options. Conditions for the equilibrium of foreign trade. Import substitution, or export promotion. Links with other countries
16.5. Features and dynamics of international trade 277
General characteristics. The dynamics of international trade at the beginning of the XXI century. The evolution of European trade. Asian countries. China and international trade. Intra-regional trade in Africa. International trade in Latin America. The role of transnational corporations in the international trade of developing countries. The level of involvement of countries in international trade. Regional growth and the commodity structure of world trade - reflecting the trend of increasing the share of modern means of production
16.6. Trade between the "global triad": USA - EU - Japan 298
US international trading positions. Trade balance, deficit. Geography of US trade. US international trade and the depreciation of the dollar. Reasons for the long-term nature of the US trade deficit. US international trade and TNCs. Trade relations between the USA and Japan. Trade relations between the USA and Canada. US-China trade relations. Trade relations between Japan and Western Europe. Areas of cooperation and controversy
16.7. European Union trading positions 315
General characteristics. Factors influencing the international trade positions of the EU Trade and economic relations of the EU with China
16.8. International trade of developing countries 321
General characteristics. African trade
16.9. Foreign trade of transforming states 330
Foreign trade at the first stage of reforms: 1990-1993
Price regulation and terms of trade. International trade
at the second stage of reforms (1990s - early 21st century). Modern trade of the CIS countries. Mutual trade of the member states of the Commonwealth
16.10. Key indicators characterizing the quality of international trade 337
elasticity of international trade. Export concentration indices
16.11. World Trade Organization 341
Organization General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) - World Trade Organization (WTO). Rounds of international trade negotiations organized under the GATT. World Trade Organization (WTO). GATT-WTO: name change or another organization? Scope of the WTO. WTO functions. Organizational structure of the WTO. United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (Vienna Convention). International Conference in Doha (Qatar, 2001) - a new round of trade negotiations (Doha Round). WTO Ministerial Conference in Monterrey (Mexico, 2002). Unsuccessful outcome of the international WTO conference in Cancun (Mexico, 2003). WTO Global Tariff System. Calculation of tariffs. Contradictions of countries on the reorganization of tariff policy in international trade. Brief interpretation of the five tariff reduction proposals and their application. Formulas for the efficiency of a country's foreign trade
Resume 360
Security questions 367
Essay topics 368
Chapter 17. Business and Tourism Sectors in Modern International Trade 369
17.1. Business services 369
Concept and content of business services
17.2. Growing trade in business services: developed countries are major exporters 371
Reasons for the growth of business services. Forms of business services. Scale of business services and their structure
17.3. Business Services in the Developing World 376
17.4. Features of international trade in services 377
17.5. Transport services related to servicing foreign trade 378
Content. concept
17.6. Information services 381
International information exchange. Internet. Definition. Communication services. Computer software
17.7. Other services 387
Determinants in trade in business services
17.8. Tourism sector in international trade 390
The concept of international tourism. Analysis methods. Methods of analysis in international tourism. Major trends in international tourism in the 1990s and in the early years of the 21st century
17.9. Impact of international tourism on economic growth 394
Tourism Marketing
17.10. Economic effect and geography of international tourism 397
Income from international tourism. Differentiation of tourist travel and income from them
17.11. Generating demand for international travel 402
17.12. Globalization of the tourism industry 409
Resume 410
Security questions 412
Essay topics 413
Chapter 18 Prices in International Trade 414
18.1. Theory of the Question and the Classification of Prices 414
The concept, content and essence of price. Variety of prices in world markets. Price types. Methods for determining prices in foreign trade. Two price groups
18.2. Formation of prices in the world commodity markets 418
Market types. The law of a single (world) price. Influence of the state on foreign trade prices. secret alliances. Cartels. Dumping. Tariffs and duties. Tariffs and export subsidies. Other types of subsidies. Customs assessment. Other Direct Effects on Prices
18.3. Movement of prices in the world commodity markets in 2000-2005. 429
Volatility of trading conditions in the field of raw materials. Global Prospects for World Commodity Prices
18.4. Oil prices on the world market 440
18.5. International price regulation 444
Price regulation mechanisms in world markets. Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) - Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) - Wikiwand Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC)
Resume 450
Security questions 452
Essay topics 452
Literature for Section IV 453
Section V Global Financial System
Chapter 19. Structure and structure of the international financial system 457
19.1. General characteristics of the structure of the international financial system 457
Institutes. Monetary system. International (world) financial system
19.2. The national financial system of the country as a basic part of the international financial system 461
Concept. Integration of financial systems into a single international financial system. Central banks. Commercial banks
19.3. General characteristics of banking and other financial institutions 467
19.4. The movement of loan capital: financial and credit relations and subjects of the world capital market .... 469
International credit. Loan capital market. Euromarket
19.5. Transnational banks (TNB) 474
Trends towards the universalization of banking operations
19.6. Bretton Woods banking institutions and other international financial institutions 476
Composition of organizations
19.6.1. International Monetary Fund (IMF) 476
Tasks of the IMF
19.6.2. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(IBRD), or the World Bank (WB) 480
Bank tasks. Composition and organizational structure. Organization of the World Bank. The purpose of the bank.
Regulation of the activities of the IBRD. Bank funds. Bank management. Board of Executive Directors. Powers of the President of the Bank. International Development Association (MAP). International Finance Corporation (IFC). The supreme body of the IFC is the Board of Governors. Purpose of the IFC. Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). Foreign Investor Advisory Agency. Institute for Economic Development (IED). General results of the World Bank
19.6.3. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(EBRD) 486
Bank tasks. The main directions of the bank's activity. EBRD lending activities. EBRD management
19.6.4. Bank for International Settlements (BIS, Basel,
Switzerland) - Bank for International Settlements
(BIS) 488
Goals of the BMR. The main activities of the BIS. Bank capital. Management
19.7. Islamic banks 490
Islamic Development Bank
19.8. International financial centers: New York,
London and Tokyo 494
Prerequisites for the creation of international centers. Connections of the international financial center in New York with the world financial markets. Markets for securities, stocks and bonds. London International Financial Centre. Tokyo International Financial Center
19.9. Offshore financial centers 497
The concept of an offshore center. Formation of offshore financial centers. Types of offshore financial centers
19.10. International Banking Pools: The Paris and London Clubs and the Basel 501 Accord
Parisian club. London club. Basel Accord on International Banking
19.11. World Monetary System 504
Concept. Foreign exchange market
19.12. System (mechanism) of the international currency market 506
The nature of the foreign exchange market. World currency market system. Gold standard. Gold standard system:
Parisian Monetary System (1816-1914). Results. Genoese monetary system (1922-1944). The impact of the world economic crisis of 1929-1933 The impact of World War II on monetary relations
19.13. Bretgon Woods Monetary System (1944-1976) 510
Dismantling the Bretton-By decoy monetary system
19.14. modern monetary system.
Jamaican 512 Conference
Contents of the Jamaica Accords
19.15. Exchange rates 514
Exchange rate. Exchange rates and the purchasing power of a currency
19.16. Currency Properties 518
19.17. Reserve currency 520
19.18. National monetary currency as an international trade and reserve currency 522
The role of the dollar in the development of the world monetary (monetary) system. Japanese yen
Resume 526
Security questions 530
Abstract topics 530
Chapter 20. European Monetary System 531
20.1. Difficult path of formation of the European Monetary System (EMS) 531
Integrated currency area
20.2. Evolution of the European Monetary System: Transition to Euro 534
Requirements for the participants of the new currency system. Institutions that ensure the functioning of a single currency system. The transition to the euro. European Monetary Institute (EMI)
20.3. Currency (money) market - part of the financial market 537
The concept of the currency (money) market. The main functions of the foreign exchange market. Forms of ensuring the functions of the foreign exchange market. Interaction of the foreign exchange market with the Eurocurrency market. Swap as a connecting link in the currency markets. Market mechanisms. Forms of foreign exchange transactions. Regulation of the currency market through devaluations and revaluations
20.4. Euro and dollar in the modern world monetary system 545
20.5. Russia and the Bipolar World Monetary System 548
20.6. Ruble and CIS 556
Resume 557
Security questions 560
Essay topics 561
Chapter 21. World securities market: stock and currency exchanges 562
21.1. The world securities market as part of the foreign exchange market 562
The concept of the securities market. Classification of money (currency) markets and capital markets. Securities. Corporate bonds
21.2. Exchange 569
The concept of the stock exchange. The evolution of currency and stock exchanges: a historical aspect. Features of currency exchanges. Increasing role of currency exchanges. Operations on the stock exchange. Definition of exchange activity. Properties of exchange activity. Exchange functions. Stages of an exchange transaction. Brokers and dealers. Exchange types
21.3. Stock market and stock exchange 572
The concept of the stock exchange. Exchange members. Rules for conducting exchange operations. Functions of stock exchanges. Exchange auction. Transactions on stock exchanges. Stock market. Types of specialists on the stock exchange. Other current participants (members) of the exchange. Applications. Peculiarities. Other employees of the stock exchange. Chicago Options Exchange
26.4. International exchanges 580
International stock exchanges. Features of international exchanges. Definition
21.5. New York Stock Exchange (NSE) 582
21.6. American Stock Exchange (AFB) 583
21.7. International stock exchanges 584
21.8. Tokyo Stock Exchange (TFB) 584
21.9. London Stock Exchange (LSE) 585
21.10. London International Financial Futures Exchange (LMB) 587
21.11. International stock organizations regulating exchange activities 587
21.12. Stock Indices 588
21.13. Capital markets in developing countries 590
21.14. New trends in the development of international stock markets: institutional changes, increased competition 592
institutional changes. Technological changes. Increasing competition in the international exchange market
21.15. Liberalization Policies: The Washington Consensus 597
Contents of the recommendations of the Washington Consensus. Mobilization of resources in capital markets
21.16. Markets and financial strategy of corporations 600
Adaptation
21.17. Stock and Bond Markets in Developing and Transition Economies 603
Stock market. domestic bond markets. International Capital Inflows to Emerging Markets Executive Summary 608
Security questions 612
Essay topics 613
Literature for Section V 613
Section VI. International organizations. Selected areas of regulation and cooperation
Chapter 22. International Organizations in the IEO System 617
22.1. International cooperation and international legal regulation of economic relations 617
Definition of economic law. Tasks of international regulation of international economic relations
22.2. Classification of international economic organizations 619
22.3. General characteristics of the economic activities of international organizations 622
22.4. Global problems of civilization in the XXI century. and the United Nations 624
22.5. Main functions and tasks of the UN and its agencies 624
22.6. Creation of UN 626
22.7. General Assembly (UNGA) and its institutions 632
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). ecosos structure
22.8. Activities of the main organizations and agencies of the UN 637
Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). United Nations Development Program (UNDP). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (EJ). United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC). Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCA-TO). Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA)
22.9. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD) - United Nations Conference on Trade
and Development (UNCTAD) 641
Globalization and development strategies. International trade in goods and services and commodity issues. Investment, technology and enterprise development. UNCTAD and the least developed, landlocked and island developing States. Some results of UNCTAD activities over 40 years of its existence
22.10. Activities of the Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) - Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 648
Group 7 - Group 8
22.11. Features of the activities of the Council of Europe (CE),
British Commonwealth of Nations, Nordic countries
cooperation, OSCE, Organization of Islamic
conference” (OIC) 652
Security questions 658
Essay topics 659
Chapter 23. Regulation of intellectual property relations 660

23.1. The concept of intellectual property and features of intellectual property rights 660 Definition. Objects and spheres. international treaties. World Intellectual Property Organization. Object of intellectual property
23.2. International legal regulation of copyright 664
Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. World (Geneva) Copyright Convention
23.3. International legal protection of related rights 669
The concept of related rights. Roman convention. Geneva Convention, Brussels Convention. Agreement on cooperation in the field of protection of copyright and related rights, 1993, concluded under SIG 23A. International legal cooperation in the field of patent law 672
Concept. Expanding cooperation. Madrid Convention. Trademark Registration Agreement
Security questions 679
Essay topics 680
Chapter 24
24.1. Review of world practice: historical aspect 681
Concept and essence of concession. What is the subject of the concession? Unlike rent. Agreement provisions
24.2. Forms of modern concessions 687
Transformation of the concession agreement. Terms
24.3. Careful preparation of concession agreements 693
negative factors. Where to begin? Property. Termination of the concession agreement. Guarantees
Security questions 696
Essay topics 697
Chapter 25. International cooperation in the field of overcoming corruption 698
25.1. The concept of corruption and the prerequisites that contribute to its occurrence 698
25.2. Analysis of international and interregional documents created for the purpose of legal fight against corruption 701
Types of corruption. OECD Bribery and Corruption Convention. Inter-American Convention against Corruption
25.3. International Organization Against Money Laundering (FATF) 705
Signs of illegal activity. Anti money laundering
25.4. International anti-corruption measures and their practical implementation 707
Basic measures to combat corruption. Features of the fight against corruption in the Russian Federation
Resume 710
Security questions 717
Essay topics 717
Literature for Section VI 717

Yu.M. Zverev

WORLD ECONOMY
AND INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC RELATIONS

Tutorial

Kaliningrad

Reviewer:

Rector of the Kaliningrad Institute of International Business,
cand. economy Sciences, Assoc. AND I. Barinov

Published by decision of the Editorial and Publishing Council of Kaliningrad State University.

Zverev Yu.M.

Z 433 World economy and international economic relations:
Textbook / Kaliningr. un-t. - Kaliningrad, 2000.

ISBN 5-88874-153-1

The main features of the modern structure of the world economy and the main areas of international economic relations (IER), including international trade in goods and services, international specialization and cooperation and export of capital are considered. Considerable attention is also paid to the issues of international economic integration. The textbook is designed for students of economics and geographers who study the world economy and economic geography of the foreign world.

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	4
1. World economy. world market. International division of labor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Groups of countries in the world economy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	7
3. International economic integration. . . . . . . . . .	20
4. International economic relations (IER). Interstate regulation of international economic relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. International trade in goods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	37
5.1. Features, structure and geography international trade in goods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2. International trade in machinery and equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3. International trade in commodities. . . .	48
6. International trade in services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	52
7. International specialization and cooperation. . . .	61
8. Export of capital. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	65
List of recommended literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	80
Main. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	80
Additional. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	80
Periodicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	81
Internet addresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .	81

We live in a dynamic world. In the 90s. the balance of power in the world economy is changing: US leadership is being confidently challenged by a uniting Europe and China growing into a great economic power. The "Japanese economic miracle" was replaced by a period of prolonged economic stagnation. Despite the “Asian crisis” of 1997, the dynamic development of the “newly industrialized countries” of East and Southeast Asia resumed. The countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the states that were formed on the site of the USSR entered (at different rates and with different results) on the difficult path of searching for a new socio-economic system.

Our time is a time of increasing interdependence and interaction of national economies, a time of rapid development of international economic relations (IER). From year to year, the growth rate of international trade exceeds the growth rate of production, more and more manufactured goods enter foreign markets. “Ordinary” trade is supplemented and, perhaps, even supplanted by international production cooperation, which makes countries and territories a kind of workshops for international production. Under these conditions, the activity of transnational corporations (TNCs) has sharply intensified, and the export of capital in the form of foreign direct investment is growing. The wave of integration is gaining momentum. The world economy is turning into a set of powerful integration systems interacting with each other. A transnational world economy is being born, which is reflected in the greater transparency of the borders of sovereign states, and in some places in their actual erasure. And this brings both benefits and costs to countries and peoples.

This tutorial, of course, does not pretend to be a detailed description of all these problems and processes. From it you can get information about the most significant features of the world economy and international economic relations at the end of the 20th century.

The small volume of the manual forced the author to brevity. In particular, because of this, the section on theories of international trade is omitted, which is discussed in detail in many textbooks on economics and economic theory, as well as on the world economy and international economic relations. At the same time, on the basis of the latest statistical and other data, the main features of the balance of power in the world economy, international trade in goods and services, export of capital, and international production cooperation are presented. A significant place is given to the issues of international economic integration and interstate regulation of international economic relations.

1. WORLD ECONOMY. WORLD MARKET.
INTERNATIONAL DIVISION OF LABOR

world economy represents the unity of two subsystems - national economies in their totality and international economic relations, linking them into an integral system.

The world economy is not just the sum of the economies of individual countries. We are talking about the totality, about the integral system of such farms, connected by the international division and cooperation of labor, international economic relations. The effect of such a farming system is much higher , rather than the sum of the effects of their isolated functioning without connections and relationships with each other.

An important part of the world economy is world (worldwide) market - a system of exchanges of goods and services, which has developed on the basis of the international division of labor and international monetary and financial relations. It was formed towards the end of the 18th century. as a result of the intensification of trade between countries and the involvement of more and more new states and territories in international trade, and continues to change and become more complex. Thus, various forms of international production cooperation have become widespread, which has led to a decrease in the share of ordinary trade in comparison with the trade turnover serving stable industrial and technological ties.

The decisive factor in the formation of the world market and the world economy as a whole is international division of labor (MRI). It can be defined as the specialization of individual countries within the framework of the world (world) economy in certain types of products and services, which determines and implies the exchange of these goods and services on the world market. Thus, MRI is a spatial form of social division of labor, characterized by a gap between the place of production and the place of consumption (N.N. Baransky).

In MRI, two situations can be distinguished. The first is when a country imports a product from another country because, due to natural conditions, it cannot produce it at all; and the second situation is when a product is imported that could be produced at home, but it would cost more. The first situation can be called absolute MRI, second - relative.

MRI is based on differences in nature and in people themselves.

One of the most obvious and initial prerequisites for MRI is the differences between countries in terms of natural and geographical terms. Countries differ in their natural resources, soil and climatic conditions, territory size, economic and geographical position, etc. and specialize according to these differences.

With the development of society, the social reasons for MRI also multiply, such as historical and industrial traditions, differences in price and qualifications of labor resources. They overlap and obscure the causes that lie in natural differences, but do not cancel them.

In the modern era, the main factor in the formation of MRI is scientific and technological achievements, the country's ability to generate ideas, translate them into new technologies and introduce these technologies into production and everyday life. “In our time, competitive advantage is no longer determined by the size of the country, or rich in natural resources or the power of financial capital. Now everything is decided by the level of education and the amount of knowledge accumulated by society.

The main incentive to participate in MRI is the economic benefit obtained by producing goods in those countries where there are absolute or comparative advantages for this.

If a country produces more per unit cost of a good than its competitors, then it has an absolute advantage in the production of that good. It is profitable for her to export this product, and it is beneficial for other countries to buy it, since their own production would cost more.

But trade and MRI are also developing in conditions where the country does not have an absolute advantage in anything. English economist D. Ricardo at the beginning of the 19th century. discovered the law of comparative advantage: each country has a comparative advantage in the production of a commodity by trading it in exchange for others.

MRI has gone through several stages in its development. By the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. the process of its formation is basically completed. Purely trade world economic relations were supplemented by the export of capital and labor migration, and the development of international production relations began.

World economy and international economic relations. World economy: stages of development. However, it should be borne in mind that the expansion of exports can, to a large extent, only mean an outflow of resources and capital abroad, if

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Subjects of the world economy

Features of the development of the world economy

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Alla Valerievna Delyatitskaya World Economy and International Economic Relations

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From the author

Lecture 1 World economy and international economic relations: concept, evolution, participants

1.1. The concept and participants of the world economy and international economic relations

1.2. Stages of development of the modern world economy

1.3. Groups of countries in the world economy

1.4. The main trends in the development of the modern world economy

Lecture 2 Resources of the world economy

2.1. Natural resource potential of the world economy

2.2. Scientific resources of the world economy

World economy and international economic relations. At 2 o'clock Ed. Khasbulatova R.I.

Alla Valerievna Delyatitskaya
World Economy and International Economic Relations

Lecture 1
World economy and international economic relations: concept, evolution, participants

Lecture 2
Resources of the world economy