Who killed Napoleon. Napoleon I (Napoleon Bonaparte). Biography. Bonaparte's cause of death is a hormonal disease

Life Napoleon Bonaparte was full of brilliant victories, forever included in the history of France. There were fewer bitter failures, but they also became legendary.

However, the last years of the life of the French emperor were much less bright. Napoleon spent them on a tiny piece of land in the Atlantic as a prisoner, limited in communication with the outside world. The last secret of Napoleon was the question of the reasons for his death, which came at a far from advanced age - the emperor was only 51 years old.

June 18, 1815 Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo. He was well aware that this military failure not only puts an end to the attempt to restore the empire, which went down in history under the name "Hundred Days", but also to his political career as a whole.

Napoleon abdicated for the second time, and on July 15, 1815, he surrendered to the British aboard the battleship Bellerophon.

This time, there was no question of any island of Elba - the British hoped to send Napoleon as far away from Europe as possible, once and for all isolating him from his faithful associates.

Napoleon Bonaparte after his abdication at the Palace of Fontainebleau. Delaroche (1845) Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

The seat of the emperor was called the island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean. Located 1,800 km west of Africa, the island, before the construction of the Suez Canal, was a strategic point for ships on their way to the Indian Ocean. Its area is 122 square kilometers.

Upon learning of where the British would send him, Napoleon exclaimed: “This is worse than the iron cage of Tamerlane! I would rather be handed over to the Bourbons... I surrendered myself under the protection of your laws. The government is trampling on the sacred customs of hospitality... It is tantamount to signing a death warrant.”

Maximum Security Prisoner

The retinue of Napoleon, who was allowed to stay with the emperor, amounted to 27 people. August 9, 1815 on board the ship "Northumberland" under the leadership of the British Admiral George Elphinstone Keith Napoleon leaves Europe forever. Nine escort ships with 3,000 soldiers who would guard Napoleon at Saint Helena accompanied his ship. On October 17, 1815, Napoleon arrived at Jamestown, the only port of Saint Helena.

For living, he was given the former summer residence of the English governor - Longwood House, located on a mountain plateau 8 kilometers from Jamestown. The house and the area adjacent to it were surrounded by a six-kilometer-long stone wall. Around the wall sentries were placed so that they could see each other. On the tops of the surrounding hills, sentinels were stationed, reporting all the actions of Napoleon with signal flags.

Exiled to Saint Helena, Napoleon lived there at Longwood Manor. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org / Isaac Newton

The life of the former emperor was under the strictest control: he was obliged to appear before the commissioners twice a day so that they could make sure that Napoleon was alive and on the island. His correspondence was carefully checked, any, even the most insignificant requests were agreed with the governor of the island.

The first years of his life on the island Napoleon, in spite of everything, was cheerful and energetic, hoping that the balance of power in Europe would still change in his favor.

Napoleon believed he was dying from a disease inherited from his father

But the expectations were not met, and the former emperor himself had serious health problems.

He began to gradually gain weight, weakness appeared, heaviness in the stomach, shortness of breath. Soon headaches began, which after a short time did not let go and accompanied Napoleon until his death.

By the end of 1819, the emperor's condition was already very serious - his complexion turned gray, his eyes went out, and his interest in life was gone. He was often tormented by diarrhea, abdominal pain, unreasonable thirst, swollen legs. After eating, there were bouts of vomiting, and sometimes he even lost consciousness.

Napoleon's physician François Carlo Antommarchi believed that his patient was suffering from hepatitis. The emperor himself believed that we were talking about cancer - he died from this disease Napoleon's father Carlo Buonaparte who was not even 40 years old.

In March 1821, Napoleon practically stopped getting out of bed. By his order, a bust of his son was placed in front of him, at which he looked for hours. On April 13, 1821, the deposed emperor, believing that his days were numbered, began writing a will, which, given his condition, dragged on for several days.

On May 1, Napoleon felt some improvement, and even tried to get out of bed, but he again became ill.

On the night of May 4-5, Bonaparte was in a semi-conscious state. Attendants gathered at his bedside - all signs indicated that there were only a few hours left before the denouement.

Napoleon Bonaparte died on May 5, 1821 at 5:49 pm, at the age of 51. The original place of his burial was the "Geranium Valley" on the island of St. Helena.

Napoleon on his deathbed. Vernet (1826) Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

Arsenic in hair: poisoning or a side effect of treatment?

At first, the doctors who found out the causes of the death of the emperor argued whether the cause was stomach cancer, as Napoleon himself believed during his lifetime and what English doctors were inclined to, or whether it was hepatitis, as François Antommarck insisted.

The version about the poisoning was widespread among the supporters of Bonaparte, but for a long time it did not have any factual basis.

In 1955 the Swedish toxicologist Stan Forshwood accidentally got acquainted with the memoirs Louis Marchand, bodyguard and servant of the Emperor of France. A toxicologist discovered 22 symptoms of Napoleon's arsenic poisoning in his memoirs.

In 1960, British scientists analyzed the chemical composition of Napoleon's hair using a neutron activation method from a strand cut from the emperor's head the day after his death. The concentration of arsenic in them was much higher than normal.

Another series of experiments carried out with Napoleon's hair allowed scientists to conclude that during the 4 months of the last year before his death, Napoleon received high doses of arsenic, and the time interval for the maximum accumulation of arsenic coincided with one of the periods of a sharp deterioration in Napoleon's health.

Critics of the poisoning theory object that the amount of hair used in the analyzes is not enough for final conclusions. In addition, in the first half of the 19th century, arsenic was part of many medical preparations, and its presence in Napoleon's body does not yet indicate intentional poisoning.

Napoleon on St. Helena. Sandmann (XIX century) Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

Femininity as a deadly disease

According to another common version that arose at the end of the 20th century, Napoleon fell victim not to a conspiracy, but to improper treatment. The potent drugs that were prescribed to the emperor provoked a potassium deficiency in the patient's body, and this, in turn, led to heart disease.

But the most original theory was put forward by the American endocrinologist Robert Greenblat, who stated that the emperor died not from cancer or poisoning, but from a hormonal disease that gradually turned him into a woman. Various symptoms that appeared in Napoleon 12 years before his death indicate that he was susceptible to the so-called "Zollinger-Ellison disease", which caused a breakdown in the hormonal system.

To prove his case, the endocrinologist cites a number of situations that arose with Napoleon long before his last exile - swollen legs before the Battle of Borodino, severe stomach pains in Dresden, fatigue and neuralgia in Leipzig, and so on.

None of the current theories about the causes of Napoleon's death has irrefutable evidence in its favor. Perhaps the point in this dispute will never be put.

In 1840, Napoleon's remains were transported from Saint Helena to France and buried in Les Invalides in Paris. Thus, the will of the emperor, set out in the will, was fulfilled - Napoleon Bonaparte wanted to find a last refuge in France.

Biography and episodes of life Napoleon Bonaparte. When born and died Napoleon Bonaparte, memorable places and dates of important events in his life. Quotes of the French commander and emperor, images and videos.

Life of Napoleon Bonaparte:

born August 15, 1769, died May 5, 1821

Epitaph

Why were you sent and who sent you?
What, good or evil, were you a faithful doer?
Why did it go out, why did it shine,
Earth wonderful visitor?
From a poem by A. S. Pushkin

"Great husband! there is no reward here
Worthy of your valor!
Looks will find her in the sky
And they will not be found among people.
From a poem by M. Yu. Lermontov

Biography

The reign of Napoleon Bonaparte did not bring any significant economic benefit to his country. But one cannot deny the military genius of Bonaparte, which allowed him to ascend the French throne. This short, stocky Corsican (Bonaparte's height, according to various sources, from 157 to 168 cm) was able to make European countries tremble before majestic France. The biography of Napoleon Bonaparte is a story of great victories and, alas, equally great defeats.

He was born on the island of Corsica, studied at a military school and from a young age became the breadwinner of his family, as he lost his father early. His military career was swift - in addition to the military school, Napoleon was constantly engaged in self-education, having re-read a large amount of military literature. We can say that he was born at the right time - when there was a riot in Paris, he quickly took matters into his own hands, after which he was appointed commander of the army, under whose leadership France won many battles - in Italy, Austria, the Alps and the French colonies. But while he was away from France, the royalists began to gain strength in it. To prevent them from taking over the government, Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed himself the ruler of France, enlisting the full support of an army that adores its commander.

For some time peace came to France, but the further policy of Napoleon's imperialism soon began to bear its negative fruit. The war with Great Britain began. And after a while with Russia, when Alexander I refused to tighten the blockade of Great Britain and imposed a duty on goods from France. This war was lost by Napoleon, which was the beginning of the fall of Bonaparte. In addition, during his reign, he managed to make many enemies in his own country, for which he was removed from the throne and sent into exile on the island of Elba. After a while, he tried to return to power with the help of the military and peasants who were still loyal to him, but, alas, he could not hold out for long and was again sent on a mission to St. Helena, where he died alone.

Napoleon's personal life was also full of setbacks. The first time he married Josephine de Beauharnais, who by the time of her marriage to Napoleon had already been married several times. Few people approved of this marriage, but Josephine and Napoleon were married for 13 years, Bonaparte even adopted Josephine's children. But, alas, they never had a common child, which was one of the reasons for the divorce. Another reason was that in order to strengthen his power, Bonaparte still needed a marriage with a girl of royal blood. When he informed Josephine of his intention to divorce, she fell ill with a nervous breakdown. Alas, this sacrifice was in vain. Despite the fact that Napoleon had an heir from his second marriage, this did not bring him happiness and power. When Napoleon was exiled to Elba, it was Josephine who asked for permission to accompany her ex-husband in exile, but she was not allowed. Napoleon survived his beloved by seven years and loved her until the end of his life.

Napoleon's death came on May 5, 1821, Napoleon's funeral took place on the island of Saint Helena. For several years, Napoleon's tomb was located on an island in the Valley of the Lilies, until in 1840 his ashes were taken out and reburied in the Les Invalides in Paris.

life line

August 15, 1769 Birth date of Napoleon Bonaparte.
1785 Beginning of Napoleon's professional military service.
December 18, 1793 The capture of Toulon, after which Napoleon reached the rank of brigadier general.
March 2, 1796 Appointment of Napoleon as commander of the Italian army.
1798-1799 Expedition to Egypt led by Napoleon.
November 1799 A coup d'état led by Napoleon, after which he was appointed First Consul.
May 18, 1804 Proclamation of Napoleon Bonaparte as emperor.
1805 Austrian campaign.
1806-1807 Prussian and Polish campaigns.
1809 Austrian campaign.
1812 Napoleon's defeat in the war against Russia.
1814 Forced abdication, exile to the island of Elba.
March 18, 1815 Return of Napoleon to the French throne.
June 22, 1815 Secondary abdication.
May 5, 1821 Date of death of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Memorable places

1. Ajaccio, Corsica, where Napoleon was born.
2. The military school of Paris, where Napoleon studied.
3. Elba Island, where Napoleon was exiled in 1814.
4. Saint Helena, where he died and where Napoleon was buried after his death.
5. Les Invalides in Paris, where Napoleon was reburied in 1840 and where a monument to Napoleon is located.

Episodes of life

When Napoleon was crowned Emperor of France and Josephine Empress, he did not allow the Pope to crown his wife. He took the crown from the hands of the Pope and put it on Josephine's head himself.

The last words of Napoleon Bonaparte before his death were: "France, army, head of the army, Josephine."

The governor of Saint Helena did not allow the word "emperor" to be written on Napoleon's tombstone. Shortly before the death of Napoleon, Count Bertrand, who was under Bonaparte, sent a request to the governor for medical assistance to the emperor, to which he received the answer: "There is no person on this island who would bear the name Emperor." Bonaparte himself would never have turned to the governor, he said: "You can kill me, but you cannot insult me." Napoleon also once said that when he dies, the universe will breathe a sigh of relief. When the news of Napoleon's death reached Paris, Talleyrand, then Napoleon's first minister, remarked sarcastically: "This is not an event, but only news."

Painting by Paul Delaroche "Napoleon Crosses the Alps" (left), painting by Jacques Louis David "Napoleon at the St. Bernard Pass" (right)

Covenant

"Impossibility is a word from the vocabulary of fools."

"There is no strength without skill"

Documentary about Napoleon Bonaparte

condolences

"He was a stranger to the world, everything in him was a mystery."
Mikhail Lermontov, poet

“Thinking about his brilliant career, we are torn between indignation and admiration. Napoleon left France crushed, conquered, bled, losing courage, becoming less than it was ... But is it possible to discount the valiant glory that our army deserved under him? Is it possible to deny the reputation of a strong power, which he won for his homeland? Echoes of that glory are heard today. And today, although a lot of water has flowed under the bridge since then, crowds of people from all over the world come to experience the awe inspired by greatness near his tomb ... "
Charles de Gaulle, 18th President of France

The cause of Napoleon's death is a hereditary disease.

The autopsy of the 51-year-old Napoleon was performed by a Corsican pathologist Francesco Antomarchi, who observed his patient during the last 18 months of his life. In the presence of British doctors, the 30-year-old doctor opened the chest cavity so that all those present could see the vital organs. The heart was placed in a silver vessel with alcohol, which, according to the will of Napoleon, was to be sent to Marie-Louise, but the governor ordered to put it in a coffin. Then the stomach was removed, as it was supposed to be the focus of the disease. The doctors could not come to a consensus and publish a general conclusion about the cause of Napoleon's death. As a result, four different documents appeared, which further inspired the rumors. Each of the bulletins states the presence of a stomach ulcer near the pylorus, i.e. opening connecting the stomach to the intestines. Antomarchi directly wrote about "cancerous ulceration", his English colleagues - "about partial hardening of the tissue, ready to be reborn into a cancerous tumor."

Researchers have now concluded that Napoleon died of a hereditary disease (his father died of cancer of the stomach or pylorus), which is caused by a chronic bacterial infection. Thus, scientists have finally rejected the version of poisoning that has been expressed in recent years, which was confirmed both in the symptoms of the disease and in the results of the autopsy. In general, the researchers came to the conclusion that even if Napoleon returned from exile before 1821, then, due to his deadly illness, he would hardly be able to interfere in the course of world history again. The researchers came to a completely unromantic conclusion. They even admitted that if such a clinical case were to occur today, the medical prognosis would be very cautious and the chances of survival would be minimal. A new scientific study of the causes of death of Napoleon proves that he died at the age of 51 from end-stage stomach cancer caused by a bacterial ulcer. If at the beginning of the 19th century gastric tumors were known to science, then no one knew about their bacterial origin.

The version of stomach cancer is supported by Swiss and British researchers. Not to mention the attending physician of Napoleon Antommarck himself, whose version was called into question in the 60s of the twentieth century after the unexpected discovery of Stan Forshwood. The conclusion of the doctor who performed the autopsy is in Appendix A.

Opponents of the version of stomach cancer argue that in the event of a disease of this kind, Bonaparte would not be able to eat normally. However, the great death weight of Napoleon does not prove anything - say Alessandro Lugli and his colleagues from the university clinics in Basel. According to the Swiss, it is not the weight itself that is important, but its change during illness. After conducting an experiment, they established a relationship between body weight and pants size. Armed with the knowledge gained, the researchers found that in the period from 1804 to 1820, Napoleon was pretty mellow: his weight increased from 68 kg to 90 kg, which was not prevented by either constant stress associated with endless battles, or exile - first to Elba and then to Saint Helena. However, already in 1821, a few months before his death, the emperor began to lose weight and lost weight to 80 kilograms. Pathologists came to the conclusion that at the end of 1820, Napoleon developed a malignant tumor. It began to grow rather quickly, so that the true cause of death could be an internal hemorrhage caused by stomach cancer.

So, for those who want to find a sensation - this version of the death of the great ruler of France is less tempting. However, in my opinion, it is she who is more plausible. It just so happened that unconditional interest is something unusual and sensational. Isn't that why they look for a conspiracy in any tragic accident? Maybe. The fact of material interest is not excluded - let's recall at least the Canadian Vader.

Bonaparte's cause of death is a hormonal disease

This version follows from a rather curious addition to the sexual portrait of Napoleon. She was put forward in the English edition of The Guardian by the American endocrinologist Robert Greenblat.

The scientist claims that Napoleon was not poisoned by arsenic, and died not from cancer, but from a hormonal disease, which gradually turned him into a woman! Various symptoms that appeared in the emperor 12 years before his death indicate that he was susceptible to the so-called "Zollinger-Ellison disease", which caused a breakdown in the hormonal system and gradually changed the sex of Napoleon.

The lethargic state of the emperor and the difficulties he experienced with urination during the siege of Moscow, his swollen legs before the battle of Borodino, severe stomach pains in Dresden, fatigue and neuralgia in Leipzig, lack of initiative and apathy in Waterloo - all these signs, - says Robert Greenblat, - indicate that the emperor simply changed his gender.

The American researcher also notes that Napoleon was constantly gaining weight, and his figure gradually took on a feminine shape. After the death of Napoleon, during the autopsy, he was found not only with an extensive stomach ulcer and stones in the bladder, but also with a thick layer of adipose tissue on his body. The emperor had thick thighs, white and tender, completely devoid of hair, skin, miniature arms and legs, soft, rounded chest and completely atrophied genitals.

In my opinion, this version is more designed to attract the attention of the crowd. As long as there are those who want to know the "truth", there will be writers who are ready to provide this "truth".

For two centuries, the death of the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte (who died at the age of 52 on May 5, 1821 in exile on the island of Saint Helena) remained the subject of scientific disputes and enduring myths. In particular, it was believed that Bonaparte was poisoned with arsenic. However, one study published several years ago seems to end this long debate. Moreover, the authors of the work managed to remove the accusations of the murder of Napoleon from his inner circle.

Death from cancer

This scientific study of the causes of death of the disgraced emperor convincingly proves that he died of stomach cancer caused by an ulcer of bacterial origin. At that time, doctors simply could not make such a diagnosis: after all, at the beginning of the 19th century, no one suspected the bacterial origin of gastric tumors. Property of bacteria Helicobacter pylori to cause the appearance of ulcers in the stomach was discovered only at the end of the 20th century by two Australian physicians. By the way, for their sensational discovery in 2005, they received the Nobel Prize in Medicine. It should be noted that even today, the chances of survival for a patient with such a diagnosis as Napoleon's are minimal.

Napoleon Bonaparte.

A team of American, Swiss, and Canadian pathologists, while investigating the case of Napoleon, carefully analyzed all historical sources in the light of modern medical knowledge. They reviewed medical certificates from an autopsy from 1821 and from an exhumation from 1840, before the ship brought the emperor's remains to France, where they were buried in the Les Invalides (veterans of the Napoleonic Wars). Pathologists also studied the memoirs of Napoleon's relatives and physicians who were with the person of the emperor.

According to experts, one of the main factors that played a fatal role in the development of a gastric ailment in the French emperor was poor heredity, since the death of his father, Charles de Buonaparte, was also caused by stomach cancer.

Is the killer a count?

For many years, the imagination of hundreds of researchers during the Napoleonic Wars was excited by the hypothesis of a conspiracy and the poisoning of the "Corsican monster" with arsenic. The reason for this was the rumors that spread immediately after the death of the emperor. In 1961, they seemed to have found a new life: after studying a strand of hair from the head of the late Bonaparte, a rather large dose of arsenic was found in them. Then historians tried to establish the identity of the alleged killers.

Among those who benefited especially from the death of the exiled emperor was Count Charles Tristan de Montholon, one of Napoleon's four close companions during the years of exile. Apparently, Montolon could have had enough motives for the murder.

The first is jealousy, for his beautiful wife Albina was supportive of Napoleon. The second is greed, as he was mired in debt and expected to get rid of them by laying his hand on part of the emperor's fortune. In addition, he allegedly loved luxury and pleasure, as a result of which the count always lacked money. This version could be confirmed by the fact that, having become the emperor's executor, Montolon inherited about two million francs.

And finally, the third reason researchers call politics. Count Montholon shared the views of the monarchists, and his father-in-law was close to the Count d'Artois, one of the main representatives of the Bourbon dynasty.

Despite its persuasiveness, the poisoning graph hypothesis has been completely refuted - recent studies of historical documents clearly indicate the absence of any signs of arsenic poisoning. And those traces of arsenic that were found in the hair of the deceased got there from somewhere outside. According to one of the hypotheses put forward by German scientists, this is due to the emperor's love for wine. The fact is that winemakers of that era used arsenic to clean wine barrels. It was this habit that led to the increased content of arsenic in the outer coverings (in the hair, in particular) of Napoleon.

And even if Charles Tristan de Montholon was greedy or jealous, he did not stain himself with murder.

Subtleties of analysis

Despite their ignorance about the properties of bacteria Helicobacter pylori, 19th century physicians were able to understand that they were dealing with a serious stomach disease. They left such accurate descriptions of the defeat of Napoleon's stomach that modern researchers have been able to depict them and even compare these drawings with pictures of typical cases of ulcers and gastric cancer. These studies proved that neoplasms in Napoleon's stomach were indeed malignant. Today, only 20 percent of patients with this diagnosis can live five years or more. And this is taking into account modern methods of treatment! Another confirmation of this hypothesis is the fact that was made public recently: Napoleon lost ten kilograms in the six months preceding his death.

It is important that the risk of stomach cancer was also high because of the diet of a soldier of that era - rich in corned beef, but devoid of fruits, vegetables and herbs. In addition, Napoleon was always careless about his diet: he ate hastily and chewed food poorly. All of these factors, together with hereditary predisposition, led to a progressive oncological disease.

On the island of Corsica, in the city of Ajaccio. At the age of nine, he came with his older brother to Paris to study. The poor, quick-tempered Corsican had no friends, but he studied well, and his career was steadily moving up. After the French Revolution, in just a year and a half, he turned from a captain into a brigadier general, and two years later he became one of the best commanders of the republic. Taking advantage of the crisis of power in France, when there was a real threat of invasion by Russian-Austrian troops, he rebelled and proclaimed himself the sole ruler - the consul. Both the people and supported him, the reign of Napoleon. Together with the great French army, Napoleon won the war with Prussia, conquered the territories of Holland, Belgium, Germany, Italy. Peace was concluded with Russia, Prussia and Austria, after which Napoleon declared a continental blockade of England. If in the early years the people supported their emperor, then after a while people got tired of constant wars, a crisis began. Napoleon decided to take a step - he declared war on Russia. But the Russians met him with a desperate rebuff, and the great French army began to retreat. The closer Napoleon came to his native country, the more active his ill-wishers became. In April 1814, the emperor abdicated and attempted suicide by taking poison. But the poison did not work, and Napoleon was sent to his first exile - to the island of Elba. On a small island near Italy, Napoleon became Emperor. He could keep personal protection, manage the affairs of the island. During the nine months he spent here, the emperor carried out several social and economic reforms to improve the lives of the inhabitants. However, the island was controlled by the British and naval patrols kept it under surveillance. The active nature of Bonaparte did not allow him to sit still, and in less than a year he fled. The news of the escape was heatedly discussed in Paris, and on February 26, the emperor was greeted in France by jubilant citizens, without a single shot being fired, he again took the throne. The army and the people supported their illustrious commander. The famous "100 days" of Napoleon's reign began. The countries of Europe threw all their forces into the fight against the great emperor. Having lost his last battle, which took place on June 18, 1815 at Waterloo, he hoped for the mercy of the British, but he was mistaken. He was again exiled, this time to the island of St. Helena. This island is located 3000 km off the coast of Africa. Here, the former emperor was kept in a house behind a stone wall, surrounded by guards. There were about 3,000 soldiers on the island, and there was no chance of escaping. Napoleon, being completely imprisoned, was doomed to inactivity and loneliness. Here he died 6 years later, on May 5, 1821. There are various legends about his death, the main versions of what happened are stomach cancer or arsenic poisoning.

Napoleon Bonaparte spent his entire life striving for unlimited power. And this unbridled passion of his led this man always and in everything. He even proclaimed himself emperor when France was not yet an empire.

Instruction

Two major historical events in France at the end of the eighteenth century led to the throne. The first of these is the French Revolution. Supporting her, an unknown young lieutenant of the French army marked the beginning of his rapid military career. The second is the military coup of 1799. Heading which Bonaparte became emperor.

The capture of Toulon brought the first national glory to Napoleon. In 1793, this city was captured by the British, who posed a serious danger to the French Republic. Appointed commander of artillery, Napoleon himself developed and brilliantly implemented a plan for the capture of Toulon. So at the age of 24 he received a brigadier general and commander of the Italian army.

Then there was a successful Italian campaign, as a result of which France annexed the north of Italy. Bonaparte himself is already becoming divisional and quickly gaining popularity in the upper strata of French society and gaining significant influence.

In 1798, Bonaparte, at the head of the French army, went to Egypt, which was then a British colony, and suffered one defeat after another.

At this time, a conspiracy is brewing in France. The reason for it is a deep crisis in which the country found itself under the control of a helpless and thoroughly corrupt Directory. Change of the constitution and reform of the power is urgently required. Both the upper and lower strata of society want and expect a military coup at that time.

In the shortest possible time, a new one is being prepared and adopted at a nationwide plebiscite. According to it, the legislative power in the Republic is divided between the Council of State, the Legislative Corps, the Senate and the Tribunal. This separation makes her absolutely helpless and clumsy.

The executive power is concentrated in the hands of the consul, to whom Bonaparte, in fact, appointed himself. There were, however, two more consuls - the second and third. But they had only an advisory vote.

Already in 19002, Napoleon passed through the Senate a special decree on the lifetime of his powers. And two years later he proclaims himself emperor.