In the circle of His Family, Jesus reached the age of twelve in Nazareth. This age, almost corresponding to our fifteen years, according to Jewish custom, constituted the transition from childhood to adolescence. The obligation to fulfill the law and participate in liturgical activities and customs was associated with this age. From that time on, boys were called "sons of the law" and had the right to participate in the performance of liturgical rites on an equal basis with adults.

Easter was approaching. What did the Easter holiday mean? The most sacred memories of the great deeds of God were united with him. The time was remembered when God chose the people of Israel out of all nations and made them His people. This holiday lasted a whole week and reminded the people of Israel of the exit from Egypt (Ex. 12). It was the greatest Jewish holiday. God commanded through Moses: "Three times a year all men must appear before the Lord: on the feast of Passover, on the feast of Pentecost, and on the feast of Tabernacles."

Nowadays, when tens of thousands of churches have been built all over the world, most of the parishioners live close to their church and know each other well, it is hard for us to imagine how this is possible: there is only one Temple in the whole world! But in those ancient times it was just so, therefore, thousands of believers from all over Judea and even from other countries flocked to Jerusalem for the Passover feast.

Traveling annually to Jerusalem with Joseph for the feast of Pascha, the Mother of God may have taken Her Divine Son with Her. We are convinced of this: the impossibility of suggesting that She would decide to be separated from Him for such a long time, as well as the exact meaning of the narration of the Evangelist Luke: “And when He was twelve years old, they also came, according to the custom, to Jerusalem for a feast” (Luke 2: 42). Israel flocked here from all over the earth to stand as a single family before the face of their God. The time of such travels was a fun time. Whole huge crowds of people from different places walked together. And among this great multitude of Jews, the most pious Jew is the sinless Servant Jesus. All the way to Jerusalem went through places of interest; every step, then a new memory of the holy events of bygone days. The farther they went, the more travelers pestered them. At the same time, conversations were going on about the ancient times of God's mercy. Almost every place on the road was a monument to the blessings of God to pious ancestors. During the rest, they read passages of sacred history and sang psalms in chorus.

The Evangelist Luke says that His parents, that is, Jesus Christ, went to Jerusalem every year. Why does the Evangelist, knowing that Joseph was not the father of Jesus, use such an incorrect expression? Because the mystery of the birth of Jesus Christ had to remain hidden from everyone until the time; not knowing this secret, all the inhabitants of Nazareth considered and called Joseph the father of Jesus as the husband of His Mother; not wanting to reveal this secret, the Mother of God herself called Joseph the father of Jesus. Thus, the Evangelist Luke, calling Joseph and Mary the parents of Jesus at this point in his narrative, conveys other people's words and leaves them without explanation, because they should already be clear to everyone. However, in another place of his Gospel, Luke explains that Joseph was not the father of Jesus, but he was considered such: Jesus ... was, as they thought, the Son of Joseph (Luke 3:23).

“When, after the end of the days of the feast, they returned, the Servant Jesus remained in Jerusalem; and Joseph and His mother did not notice it, but thought that He was walking with others. And having traveled a day's journey, they began to seek Him among relatives and acquaintances…” (Luke 2:43,44). The loss of the Child Jesus was not a negligence on the part of Mary, but it was God's watching and the announcement of the calling of Christ. “He said to them: “Why did you have to look for me? or did you not know that I must be in that which belongs to my Father?” (Luke 2:49). Evidently, the festive service made such a strong impression on His young soul that He could not remain in the company of people who, perhaps, thought more about the external side of the holiday than about its meaning. Suppose Jesus saw a priest slaughter a sacrificial animal.

Later John the Baptist called Him the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world (John 1:29). The word refers to those who desire to see the Lamb that Isaiah proclaims (Isaiah 53:7-8). “Behold,” he says, “behold the Lamb whom they seek; Behold the Lamb, right here." John points him out. He did not simply say the Lamb, but "Behold the Lamb," for there are many lambs, just as there are many Christs; but He is that Lamb whose type is indicated by Moses (Ex. 12), Whom Isaiah proclaims (Is. 53:7-8), and who every day takes away our sins, some through baptism, others through repentance.

Leaving Jerusalem at the end of the holidays and not seeing Jesus around them, Joseph and Mary could think that He was going with their relatives, who were also returning to Nazareth, where they were going. Perhaps, on the way to Jerusalem, the Child Jesus temporarily joined other groups of pilgrims, relatives or acquaintances on the way, and during the daytime rest or lodging for the night he returned to Mother and Joseph. Only this can explain that the parents go to the first overnight stay, not worrying that the Child is not with them. Their calmness was the result of their firm conviction that the Child Jesus was walking right there, not far away, in the circle of his own people. If they could have thought that Jesus had remained in Jerusalem, they would certainly have started looking for Him before evening and would immediately return for Him.

The irresistible desire for the divine powerfully declared itself in the soul of Christ during His visit to Jerusalem and prompted Him to return to the temple again when His parents went home with Him.

Returning to Jerusalem, still crowded with pilgrims, Joseph and Mary did not imagine that Jesus could remain in the temple, and therefore searched in vain for Him outside the temple. After three days; when they finally entered the temple, probably for the purpose of praying, they saw Him among the teachers. That's where He came; that's where He listened to the reading and exposition of the Scriptures. Here was the speech of His Father, a voice from His heavenly homeland, here were the images and likenesses of the future salvation, predicting about Him and having to be fulfilled in Him. Little by little, that which lay in the depths of His being awakened in Him. He listens to teachers who treat the lad with great favor. He asks, and they interpret and explain everything to Him according to their understanding. They themselves and all who hear Him marvel at His understanding and answers.

What were the questions and answers of the twelve-year-old Jesus to the Jewish teachers? The Evangelist says nothing about this; but since the conversation took place in the temple, under the guidance of scribes engaged in the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures, and, moreover, at a time when everyone was expecting the coming of the Messiah, it can be reliably assumed that the questions and answers of both the teachers and Jesus concerned the prophecies about the Messiah. In this conversation, the Child Jesus shows not only wisdom, but also knowledge, which astonishes the scribes. Where does such knowledge come from? Where, at what school did he study? We find the answer to these questions in the further narratives of the Evangelists. When Jesus entered the synagogue of Nazareth and began to teach, everyone “wondered at the words of grace that proceeded from his mouth, and they said was this not Joseph’s son?” (Luke 4:22); “Where did He get such wisdom and strength?” (Matthew 13:54). When Jesus was teaching in the temple, “the Jews wondered, saying, How does he know the Scriptures without learning?” (John 7:15). Thus, the inhabitants of Nazareth, who knew Jesus Christ from childhood, and the Jews, that is, the enemies of Jesus, certify that He did not study, was not in any school. Jesus Christ himself not only does not refute such an opinion of the Jews about Him (as He knows the Scriptures without studying), but even directly affirms it, saying: “My teaching is not mine, but that of the one who sent me” (John 7:16) to this the teaching of the One who sent it, it was these words of God Himself that the Jews marveled at when they heard Jesus preach. The same wisdom of God manifested itself in the questions and answers of the twelve-year-old Jesus, who did not need either earthly schools or teachers. The boy Christ, in spite of His childhood age, in deep humility tried to teach these gray-haired "Nicodemes", that is, the teachers of the Jewish people, the true, uncorrupted Word of God, causing them great astonishment with His wisdom.

Seeing Jesus among the teachers, Joseph and Mary were surprised, probably because they did not expect to meet Him in such a community and in such an environment. Turning to Him with the words - "What have You done with us? Behold, your father and I have sought you with great sorrow” (Luke 2:48) – Mary could not call Joseph otherwise than her father, so as not to reveal the mysteries of the Nativity of Jesus Christ. In the eyes of all who did not know this secret, Joseph was the father of Jesus, although in reality he was not. Mary was, of course, sure that nothing bad could happen to Him, as one who was under the protection of God Himself, and if, despite this, she grieved, it was only because such a long separation, which happened for the first time, was unpleasant, painful. personally for her.

The temple is the house of God, and where, if not in the Temple, should the incarnate God be located?! By His answer, Christ showed that He always knew that He was the Son of God and that a great mission was entrusted to Him - the salvation of the human race. Words: "Why did you seek Me?" (Luke 2:49) not words of reproof or reproach, but words of consolation and instruction. First of all, they are words of instruction, because by means of them Christ teaches Mary and Joseph that His separation from them did not happen by blind chance, but by God's providence and secret destinies. So that He would abide and exercise in the very things for which He was sent by His Heavenly Father. Christ declares to His parents (Mary and Joseph) that they should not have sought Him with such sadness and pain in their hearts, since His separation from them was completely alien to any danger that they could fear for Him.

“Or did you not know that I must be in that which belongs to my Father?” (Luke 2:49). For the first time, Christ testifies that God is His Father. The boy is 12 years old, but he is already aware of his divine sonship and messianic dignity. “... man was conceived in the womb of the Virgin, but in the very conception he was already God; although man was born of a virgin, yet God was also born together; grew, ate food, was weary from the way, was bound in the garden of Gethsemane, we strike the cheeks, we strike the head with a rod, crowned with a crown of thorns, a man is crucified, but together with God. .

First He is the Son of God, and then His parents. First He must go the way of God, and then their way. Nowhere were they to seek Him but in the temple, which belongs to His Father. But His words contain even more: to do the will of His Father is His food, to do the works of the Father is His calling. but neither Mary nor Joseph understood the depth of Jesus' answer. In the Lord's answer, it is clear that the duty to God is devoted entirely to thought, and will, and love; duties to men are given their place, as seen from the events that followed the answer (Luke 2:51). When a person does not place his duties properly, does not give each of them the proper measure: then the fulfillment of them cannot bear virtue; the fruit will be sins and errors, all the more dangerous because their outer garments are plausible. .

The parents of Jesus Christ, of course, understood that by calling the temple belonging to His Father, He calls God His Father. But they might not understand the whole mystery of His relationship to God the Father. Only gradually, little by little, did they penetrate into this mystery, revealed at His Annunciation. However, according to the testimony of the Evangelist Luke, His Mother kept all these words in Her heart (Luke 2:51), until the time came when She completely understood them; and this testimony convinces us that the whole story about the twelve-year-old Jesus was written down by Saint Luke from the words of the Mother of God herself.

The Evangelists do not say anything about the further life of Jesus before His appearance on the Jordan; Luke alone testifies that Jesus returned from Jerusalem to Nazareth, where he remained in obedience to His Mother and Joseph. “And He went with them and came to Nazareth; and was in subjection to them. And His Mother kept all these words in Her heart. But Jesus grew in wisdom and stature, and in favor with God and men.” (Luke 2:51-52) Neither the consciousness of His high calling, nor the impression of the praises of astonished listeners, nothing gives Him a reason to leave childish obedience. He was in obedience to his parents. His childhood and youth development was a constant habit of obedience as He publicly testified of His Father. But even His religious human knowledge was not yet complete. He grew both in age and in wisdom. By constant contact with His Heavenly Father, deepening in the Holy Scriptures of His people, visiting the Nazareth synagogue on Sabbaths, His human knowledge expanded and deepened, His wisdom increased. The grace and favor of God rested more and more fully in him. He also found favor with the people. In all Nazareth, there was only one voice about Him, that He was the most beautiful among all the young men. Everyone loved and respected Him.

Thus, quietly and calmly in the hut, He passed from childhood and youth to the years of male maturity. After this story, the veil falls again and the youth of Jesus for 18 years remains unknown, until the Redeemer spoke with the words: “The time is fulfilled and the Kingdom of God is at hand: repent and believe in the Gospel” (Mark 1:14-15).

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Imagination and creativity of the individual

1. The concept of imagination

The experimental study of imagination has been a subject of interest for Western psychologists since the 1950s. The function of imagination - the construction and creation of images - has been recognized as the most important human ability. Its role in the creative process was equated with the role of knowledge and judgment. In the 1950s, J. Guilford and his followers developed the theory of creative (creative) intelligence.

The definition of imagination and the identification of the specifics of its development is one of the most difficult problems in psychology. According to A.Ya. Dudetsky (1974), there are about 40 different definitions of imagination, but the question of its essence and difference from other mental processes is still debatable. So, A.V. Brushlinsky (1969) rightly notes the difficulties in defining imagination, the vagueness of the boundaries of this concept. He believes that "Traditional definitions of imagination as the ability to create new images actually reduce this process to creative thinking, to operating with ideas, and concludes that this concept is generally still redundant - at least in modern science."

S.L. Rubinstein emphasized: "Imagination is a special form of the psyche that only a person can have. It is continuously connected with the human ability to change the world, transform reality and create something new."

With a rich imagination, a person can live in different times, which no other living being in the world can afford. The past is fixed in images of memory, and the future is presented in dreams and fantasies. S.L. Rubinstein writes: "Imagination is a departure from past experience, it is a transformation of the given and the generation of new images on this basis."

L.S. Vygotsky believes that “Imagination does not repeat impressions that have been accumulated before, but builds some new rows from previously accumulated impressions. Thus, introducing something new into our impressions and changing these impressions so that as a result a new, previously non-existent image , constitutes the basis of that activity which we call imagination.

Imagination is a special form of the human psyche, standing apart from other mental processes and at the same time occupying an intermediate position between perception, thinking and memory. The specificity of this form of mental process lies in the fact that imagination is probably characteristic only of a person and is strangely connected with the activity of the organism, being at the same time the most "mental" of all mental processes and states.

In the textbook "General Psychology" A.G. Maklakov gives the following definition of imagination: “Imagination is the process of transforming ideas that reflect reality, and creating new ideas on this basis.

In the textbook "General Psychology" V.M. Kozubovsky contains the following definition. Imagination is the mental process of a person creating in his mind an image of an object (object, phenomenon) that does not exist in real life. Imagination can be:

The image of the final result of real objective activity;

a picture of one's own behavior in conditions of complete informational uncertainty;

the image of a situation that resolves problems that are relevant to a given person, the real overcoming of which is not possible in the near future.

Imagination is included in the cognitive activity of the subject, which necessarily has its own object. A.N. Leontiev wrote that "The object of activity acts in two ways: firstly - in its independent existence, as subordinating and transforming the activity of the subject, secondarily - as an image of the object, as a product of the mental reflection of its properties, which is carried out as a result of the activity of the subject and cannot be realized otherwise" . .

The selection in the subject of its specific properties necessary for solving the problem determines such a characteristic of the image as its partiality, i.e. dependence of perception, ideas, thinking, on what a person needs - on his needs, motives, attitudes, emotions. “It is very important to emphasize here that such “partiality” is itself objectively determined and is expressed not in the adequacy of the image (although it can be expressed in it), but that it allows one to actively penetrate into reality.”

The combination in the imagination of the subject contents of the images of two objects is associated, as a rule, with a change in the forms of representation of reality. Starting from the properties of reality, the imagination cognizes them, reveals their essential characteristics through their transfer to other objects, which fix the work of the productive imagination. This is expressed in metaphor, symbolism, characterizing the imagination.

According to E.V. Ilyenkov, "The essence of imagination lies in the ability to "grasp" the whole before the part, in the ability to build a complete image on the basis of a single hint, the tendency to build a complete image." "A distinctive feature of the imagination is a kind of departure from reality, when a new image is built on the basis of a separate sign of reality, and not just the existing ideas are reconstructed, which is typical for the functioning of the internal plan of action."

Imagination is a necessary element of human creative activity, which is expressed in the construction of an image of the products of labor, and ensures the creation of a program of behavior in cases where the problem situation is also characterized by uncertainty. Depending on the various circumstances that characterize the problem situation, the same task can be solved both with the help of imagination and with the help of thinking.

From this we can conclude that the imagination works at that stage of cognition, when the uncertainty of the situation is very high. Fantasy allows you to "jump" through some stages of thinking and still imagine the final result.

Imagination processes have an analytic-synthetic character. Its main tendency is the transformation of representations (images), which ultimately ensures the creation of a model of a situation that is obviously new, that has not arisen before. Analyzing the mechanism of imagination, it must be emphasized that its essence is the process of transforming ideas, creating new images based on existing ones. Imagination, fantasy is a reflection of reality in new, unexpected, unusual combinations and connections.

So, imagination in psychology is considered as one of the forms of reflective activity of consciousness. Since all cognitive processes are reflective in nature, it is necessary, first of all, to determine the qualitative originality and specificity inherent in the imagination.

Imagination and thinking are intertwined in such a way that it can be difficult to distinguish between them; both of these processes are involved in any creative activity, creativity is always subordinated to the creation of something new, unknown. Operating with existing knowledge in the process of fantasizing implies their mandatory inclusion in the system of new relationships, as a result of which new knowledge may arise. This shows: "... the circle closes... Cognition (thinking) stimulates the imagination (creating a transformation model), which (the model) is then verified and refined by thinking," writes A.D. Dudetsky.

According to L.D. Stolyarenko, several types of imagination can be distinguished, the main ones being passive and active. The passive, in turn, is divided into voluntary (dreaming, dreams) and involuntary (hypnotic state, fantasy in dreams). Active imagination includes artistic, creative, critical, recreative, and anticipatory.

Imagination can be of four main types:

Active imagination - is characterized by the fact that, using it, a person, at his own request, by an effort of will, causes appropriate images in himself.

Active imagination is a sign of a creative type of personality that constantly tests its inner capabilities, its knowledge is not static, but continuously recombines, leads to new results, giving the individual emotional reinforcement for new searches, the creation of new material and spiritual values. Her mental activity is supraconscious, intuitive.

Passive imagination lies in the fact that its images arise spontaneously, in addition to the will and desire of a person. Passive imagination can be unintentional and intentional. Unintentional passive imagination occurs with a weakening of consciousness, psychosis, disorganization of mental activity, in a semi-drowsy and sleepy state. With deliberate passive imagination, a person arbitrarily forms images of escape from reality-dreams.

The unreal world created by the individual is an attempt to replace unfulfilled hopes, make up for heavy losses, and ease mental trauma. This type of imagination indicates a deep intrapersonal conflict.

There is also a distinction between the reproducing, or reproductive, and the transforming, or productive imagination.

The task of reproductive imagination is to reproduce reality as it is, and although there is also an element of fantasy, such imagination is more like perception or memory than creativity. Thus, a direction in art called naturalism, as well as partly realism, can be correlated with reproductive imagination.

Productive imagination is distinguished by the fact that in it reality is consciously constructed by a person, and not just mechanically copied or recreated, although at the same time it is still creatively transformed in the image.

Imagination has a subjective side associated with individual personality characteristics of a person (in particular, with his dominant hemisphere of the brain, type of nervous system, features of thinking, etc.). In this regard, people differ in:

brightness of images (from the phenomena of a clear "vision" of images to the poverty of ideas);

by the depth of processing of images of reality in the imagination (from complete unrecognizability of the imaginary image to primitive differences from the real original);

by the type of the dominant channel of imagination (for example, by the predominance of auditory or visual images of the imagination).

2. The concept of creativity

Creativity is the highest mental function and reflects reality. However, with the help of these abilities, a mental departure beyond the limits of the perceived is carried out. With the help of creative abilities, an image of an object that has never existed or does not exist at the moment is formed. At preschool age, the foundations of the child's creative activity are laid, which are manifested in the development of the ability to plan and its implementation in the ability to combine their knowledge and ideas, in a sincere transfer of their feelings. adaptation fifth grader learning atmosphere

Currently, there are many approaches to the definition of creativity, as well as concepts related to this definition: creativity, innovative thinking, productive thinking, creative act, creative activity, creative abilities and others (V.M. Bekhterev, N.A. Vetlugina, V. N. Druzhinin, Y. A. Ponomarev, A. Rebera, etc.).

Psychological aspects of creativity, in which thinking is involved, are widely represented in many scientific works (D.B. Bogoyavlenskaya, P.Ya. Galperin, V.V. Davydov, A.V. Zaporozhets, L.V. Zankov, Ya.A. Ponomarev , S.L. Rubinstein) and creative imagination as a result of mental activity, providing a new education (image), implemented in different types of activity (A.V. Brushlinsky, L.S. Vygotsky, O.M. Dyachenko, A.Ya. Dudetsky, A.N. Leontiev, N.V. Rozhdestvenskaya, F.I. Fradkina, D.B. Elkonin, R. Arnheim, K. Koffka, M. Wergheimer).

"Ability" is one of the most general psychological concepts. In domestic psychology, many authors gave him detailed definitions.

In particular, S.L. Rubinstein understood abilities as "... a complex synthetic formation, which includes a whole range of data, without which a person would not be capable of any specific activity, and properties that are developed only in the process of organized activity in a certain way" . Similar statements can be gleaned from other authors.

Ability is a dynamic concept. They are formed, developed and manifested in activity.

B.M. Teplov proposed three essentially empirical signs of abilities, which formed the basis of the definition most often used by specialists:

1) abilities are individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another;

only those features that are relevant to the success of an activity or several activities;

abilities are not reducible to the knowledge, skills and abilities that a person has already developed, although they determine the ease and speed of acquiring these knowledge and skills.

Naturally, the success of an activity is determined by both motivation and personal characteristics, which prompted K.K. Platonov to attribute to abilities any properties of the psyche, to one degree or another determining success in a particular activity. However, B.M. Teplov goes further and points out that, in addition to success in activity, the ability determines the speed and ease of mastering the activity, and this changes the situation with the definition: the speed of learning may depend on motivation, but the feeling of ease in learning (otherwise - "subjective price", experience of difficulty), rather, is inversely proportional to motivational tension.

So, the more a person's ability is developed, the more successfully he performs the activity, the faster he masters it, and the process of mastering the activity and the activity itself are subjectively easier for him than training or work in the area in which he does not have the ability. The problem arises: what is this mental essence - abilities? One indication of its behavioral and subjective manifestations (and the definition of B.M. Teplov, in fact, is behavioral) is not enough.

In its most general form, the definition of creativity is as follows. V.N. Druzhinin defines creativity as the individual characteristics of a person's quality, which determine the success of his creative activities of various kinds.

Creativity is an amalgamation of many qualities. And the question of the components of human creativity is still open, although at the moment there are several hypotheses concerning this problem. Many psychologists associate the ability to creative activity, primarily with the peculiarities of thinking. In particular, the well-known American psychologist Guilford, who dealt with the problems of human intelligence, found that creative individuals are characterized by the so-called divergent thinking.

People with this type of thinking, when solving a problem, do not concentrate all their efforts on finding the only correct solution, but begin to look for solutions in all possible directions in order to consider as many options as possible. Such people tend to form new combinations of elements that most people know and use only in a certain way, or form links between two elements that at first glance have nothing in common. The divergent way of thinking underlies creative thinking, which is characterized by the following main features:

1. Speed - the ability to express the maximum number of ideas, in this case it is not their quality that matters, but their quantity).

2. Flexibility - the ability to express a wide variety of ideas.

3. Originality - the ability to generate new non-standard ideas; this can manifest itself in answers, decisions that do not coincide with generally accepted ones.

4. Completeness - the ability to improve your "product" or give it a finished look.

Well-known domestic researchers of the problem of creativity A.N. Luk, based on the biographies of prominent scientists, inventors, artists and musicians, highlights the following creative abilities:

1. The ability to see the problem where others do not see it.

The ability to collapse mental operations, replacing several concepts with one and using symbols that are more and more capacious in terms of information.

The ability to apply the skills acquired in solving one problem to solving another.

The ability to perceive reality as a whole, without splitting it into parts.

The ability to easily associate distant concepts.

The ability of memory to produce the right information at the right moment.

Flexibility of thinking

The ability to choose one of the alternatives for solving a problem before it is tested.

The ability to integrate newly perceived information into existing knowledge systems.

The ability to see things as they are, to distinguish what is observed from what is brought in by interpretation.

Ease of generating ideas.

Creative imagination.

The ability to refine details, to improve the original idea.

Candidates of Psychological Sciences V.T. Kudryavtsev and V. Sinelnikov, based on a wide historical and cultural material (the history of philosophy, social sciences, art, individual areas of practice), identified the following universal creative abilities that have developed in the process of human history.

1. Imagination realism - a figurative grasp of some essential, general trend or pattern of development of an integral object, before a person has a clear idea about it and can enter it into a system of strict logical categories.

2. The ability to see the whole before the parts.

Supra-situational - the transformative nature of creative solutions and the ability to solve a problem not just choose from alternatives imposed from outside, but independently create an alternative.

Experimentation - the ability to consciously and purposefully create conditions in which objects most clearly reveal their essence hidden in ordinary situations, as well as the ability to trace and analyze the features of the "behavior" of objects in these conditions.

3. Methods for the study of imagination and creativity

To more accurately determine the level of development of students' creative abilities, it is necessary to analyze and evaluate each independently completed creative task.

S.Yu. Lazareva recommends that the pedagogical assessment of the results of students' creative activity be carried out using the "Fantasy" scale developed by G.S. Altshuller to assess the presence of fantastic ideas and thus allowing to assess the level of imagination (the scale is adapted to the junior school question by M.S. Gafitulin, T.A. Sidorchuk) .

The "Fantasy" scale includes five indicators: novelty (assessed on a 4-level scale: copying an object (situation, phenomenon), a slight change in the prototype, obtaining a fundamentally new object (situation, phenomenon)); persuasiveness (convincing is a reasonable idea described by a child with sufficient certainty).

The data of scientific works suggest that research conducted in real life is legitimate if it is aimed at improving the educational environment in which the child is formed, contributing to social practice, at creating pedagogical conditions conducive to the development of creativity in the child.

1. Technique "Verbal fantasy" (speech imagination). The child is invited to come up with a story (story, fairy tale) about some living creature (person, animal) or about something else of the child's choice and present it orally within 5 minutes. Up to one minute is allotted for inventing a theme or plot of a story (story, fairy tale), and after that the child starts the story.

In the course of the story, the child's fantasy is evaluated on the following grounds:

speed of imagination processes;

unusualness, originality of images of the imagination;

richness of imagination;

depth and elaboration (detailing) of images; - impressionability, emotionality of images.

For each of these features, the story is evaluated from 0 to 2 points. 0 points are given when this feature is practically absent in the story. The story receives 1 point if this feature is present, but is relatively weakly expressed. The story earns 2 points when when the corresponding sign is not only present, but also expressed quite strongly.

If within one minute the child did not come up with the plot of the story, then the experimenter himself prompts him to some plot and 0 points are put for the speed of imagination. If the child himself came up with the plot of the story by the end of the allotted time (1 minute), then according to the speed of imagination, he gets a score of 1 point. Finally, if the child managed to come up with the plot of the story very quickly, within the first 30 seconds, or if within one minute he came up with not one, but at least two different plots, then the child is given 2 points on the basis of "speed of imagination processes".

Unusualness, originality of images of the imagination is regarded in the following way.

If the child simply retold what he once heard from someone or saw somewhere, then on this basis he gets 0 points. If the child retells the known, but at the same time introduced something new from himself, then the originality of his imagination is estimated at 1 point. In the event that the child came up with something that he could not see or hear somewhere before, then the originality of his imagination gets a score of 2 points. The richness of the child's fantasy is also manifested in the variety of images he uses. When evaluating this quality of imagination processes, the total number of different living beings, objects, situations and actions, various characteristics and signs attributed to all this in the child's story is recorded. If the total number of the named exceeds ten, then the child receives 2 points for the richness of fantasy. If the total number of parts of the specified type is between 6 and 9, then the child receives 1 point. If there are few signs in the story, but in general not less than five, then the richness of the child's fantasy is estimated at 0 points.

The depth and elaboration of images is determined by how varied the details and characteristics are presented in the story related to the image that plays a key role or occupies a central place in the story. It also gives marks in a three-point system.

The child receives points when the central object of the story is depicted very schematically.

score - if, when describing the central object, its detailing is moderate.

points - if the main image of his story is described in sufficient detail, with many different details characterizing it.

The impressionability or emotionality of images of the imagination is assessed by whether it arouses interest and emotions in the listener.

About points - the images are of little interest, banal, do not impress the listener.

score - the images of the story cause some interest on the part of the listener and some emotional response, but this interest, together with the corresponding reaction, soon fades away.

points - the child used bright, very interesting images, the listener's attention to which, once having arisen, did not fade away later, accompanied by emotional reactions such as surprise, admiration, fear, etc.

Thus, the maximum number of points that a child in this technique can receive for his imagination is 10, and the minimum is 0.

4. Diagnostics of creative abilities

Psychologist B.F. Lomov argues that “every person has “creative potential” to some extent, because without creativity, at least elementary, a person cannot solve life's problems, that is, simply live ...”.

It is generally recognized that creativity is more a process, a search, than a result. This search does not always end with the creation of a high-quality product of activity. Rather, it is a kind of ability to ask a question, to pose a problem and an attempt to solve it.

In accordance with this, the first sign of the presence of creative abilities is a strong cognitive need, manifested in high cognitive activity. High cognitive activity is manifested at a very early age, and by carefully observing the child, one can easily assess its development. If the baby clearly shows a positive emotional reaction to a new toy, situation, great interest in surrounding objects, people, active development of new ways of knowing, the desire to imitate, and then attempts to experiment independently (with an object, sound, word) - all this speaks of unfolding creative potential.

So, the questions of inquisitive kids are broader in subject matter and deeper in content than those of their peers. By the age of five, they are trying to find answers on their own, observing, trying to experiment. From the age of five or six, the increased level of cognitive activity allows the child to formulate a question, a problem on his own, turning them not to others, but to himself; the search for solutions is carried out systematically and consistently. By the end of preschool age, there may be a desire to present their "discoveries" to others - adults, children.

In preschool pedagogy and psychology, there are many criteria for evaluating the creative work of children. But some researchers note the great effectiveness of the approach to the analysis of children's creativity by the American specialist P. Torrens. He singles out creative thinking as an obligatory component of any creative search and uses the main indicators of creative thinking (productivity, flexibility, originality, development of creative ideas and solutions) to analyze the results of creative activity.

In order to reveal the creative potential of the child, his creative abilities, E.S. Belova recommends observing the child in the classroom, in the game, noting the following points:

Preferred types of activities, games;

Independence of creative search (whether he seeks help from adults, other children, what kind of help and at what stage was required);

The attitude of the child to the process of creativity (emotional coloring, enthusiasm);

Initiative (in choosing the type of activity, creating an idea, choosing means);

Realization of a creative idea (completeness, changes, awareness);

The use of information sources and expressive means (types, preferences, diversity, adequacy to the idea).

Creatively gifted preschoolers can show great interest in various types of activities and games, but mainly in those in which they can express themselves creatively - discover, create something new. As a rule, such children are engaged in creativity with joy and great enthusiasm, while showing activity and initiative; they are quite independent in their creative search, but at the same time they can turn to elders for the necessary information and for information on how to obtain this information. Such children are purposeful and persistent in the implementation of their plans, they are completely absorbed by the very process of creativity.

Based on the analysis of the characteristics of gifted children, psychologists J. Renzulli and R. Hartman proposed to evaluate the creative potential of a child according to the following parameters:

1. Shows curiosity about many things, constantly asks questions;

2. Offers many ideas, solutions to problems, answers to questions;

3. Freely expresses his opinion, sometimes persistently, vigorously defends it;

4. Prone to risky actions;

5. Has a rich imagination, imagination; often concerned with the transformation, improvement of society, objects, systems;

6. Has a well-developed sense of humor and sees humor in situations that others do not find funny;

7. Sensitive to beauty, pays attention to the aesthetic characteristics of things, objects;

8. Nonconformist, not afraid to be different;

To the above, we can add a great desire for creative self-expression, for the creative use of objects.

Focusing on these characteristics, one can evaluate the manifestation of the child's creative potential. If, at the same time, we expand the boundaries of the assessment, that is, not only fix the severity of the characteristic within the framework of alternative answers “yes - no”, but also try to distinguish the degree of severity (very weak, weak, medium, strong, very strong), we can get a general idea of the disclosure the creative potential of the child.

The complexity and versatility of the concept of creativity presupposes an integrated approach to its diagnosis. The selection of any one characteristic or quality, as well as the use of one diagnostic method, is not enough for an objective and accurate assessment of the child's abilities.

Diagnostics of creative abilities has its own characteristics, which we need to highlight in order to see their distinguishing feature from other types of diagnostics.

Diagnostic features:

*To obtain more accurate results, it is necessary to exclude educational motivation, spend it in your free time.

*Expert assessment is not so much the result as the process.

*Other methods: not through tests, but through participant observation in natural conditions (the expert plays together); through self-questionnaires, a biographical method in which only facts are filmed (because creativity occurs episodically) and the conditions in which the fact occurred are analyzed.

*Game, training are the main methods.

*A preparatory period is required to relieve tension.

*The time limit has been removed.

The main indicators for diagnosing:

Fluency.

Flexibility (number of ideas, ability to switch from problem to problem).

Originality (standard answer or not).

Persistence of interest.

Integrity (the ability to give the product a finished look).

When conducting diagnostics with children of primary school age, it is necessary to create an environment for individual examination, without contact with other children, because. Children of this age have a tendency to imitate.

Diagnostic methods should exclude the verbal explanation of children from the outside, because. their speech is inadequate to the feelings. Children feel and understand more intuitively than they can say. Preference is given to intuition.

Artistic and aesthetic development is tested through the perception of the expressiveness of the form, and not through mastering the language of art, it is tested through the presentation of art objects, reproductions, photos, postcards.

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Basic requirements for a concise presentation:

The information of the source text needs to be reduced and summarized;
It is necessary to reflect the main thoughts of the author, distortion of the author's judgments is not allowed;
The sequence of presentation of the content must be preserved;
It is necessary to transfer micro-themes of the source text, there are three of them; omission of a micro-theme or violation of paragraph division leads to a decrease in the mark.

Briefly summarizing the text you have heard is much more difficult than the text you have read, so in preparation for writing a concise summary, it makes sense to practice shortening the text you read, that is, the one that you perceived visually. The next step will be the reduction of the text perceived by ear, here you can use the audio recordings of the texts.

Types of text compression

When working with visually perceived text, you can practice shortening the text in various ways. There are several techniques for compressing (that is, compressing) text:

Exception.

In this case, we remove irrelevant details, secondary information from the proposal. We exclude repetitions, synonyms, introductory and plug-in constructions, clarifications and explanations. For example: Last night, at sunset, I was sitting at the bus stop, waiting for the regular bus, on which the guests were supposed to arrive. - Last night I was waiting at the bus stop to meet the guests.

You can replace homogeneous parts of a sentence with a generalizing word, direct speech of an indirect, complex sentence with a simple one, a sentence or part of it with a demonstrative pronoun, etc. For example: Mary said: “Forgive me, I didn’t mean to offend you. Come to the table.” Maria apologized and invited the guests to the table.

A combination of two simple sentences or a complex and a simple one, often accompanied by a substitution or elimination. For example: We went fishing together. There, having abandoned the fishing rods, we talked for a long time about everything: about school, about the new staff of the newspaper, about the last books we read. - We went fishing together and talked for a long time about everything.

Basic principles of text compression:

As a result of the reduction, a coherent, logical text should be obtained, and not its plan or detailed retelling.

In the new text, all microthemes, the main idea of the original text, should be preserved.

When reading the text for the first time, try to focus on the perception of the text, determining the main topic, micro-topics, ideas (main idea) of the text. You can limit yourself to just listening, but you can also start taking notes, then you need to pay attention to the first sentences of each of the three paragraphs (there is a noticeable pause between them when reading) and briefly write them down. The first sentence is a paragraph opening, often it is the meaning of the micro-theme. Records should be made, leaving space between the lines, so that later you can enter the necessary information there.

Between the first and second reading, 5-7 minutes are allotted to comprehend the text. At this time, you need to briefly write down the sequence of events, restore the course of the author's reasoning. You can make a plan in which to identify micro-themes.

At the second listening, check the correctness of the selection of paragraphs, supplement and correct the recorded materials. Pay special attention to dates, proper names, quotations that are important for conveying the main idea of the text. Fix the sequence: in the narrative - the beginning of the event, its course, culmination, end; in the description - the subject and its essential features; in reasoning - thesis, evidence, conclusion.

Choose compression methods for each part of the text and then use these methods to shorten the text, keeping the main information and all the microthemes. After recording a condensed presentation, check whether it was possible to maintain the connection between the parts, the author's intent. Read the text and count the number of words. If there are less than 70, consider which part can be expanded.

After checking the content, carefully check the literacy (presence of grammatical, speech, spelling, punctuation errors), rewrite the concise statement in a clean copy.

Text Compression Example

Consider, as a text for a concise presentation, a fragment of an article by D. S. Likhachev “Purpose and self-esteem”.

Source text:

When a person consciously or intuitively chooses a goal, a life task for himself, at the same time he involuntarily gives himself an assessment. By what a person lives for, one can judge his self-esteem - low or high. If a person sets himself the task of acquiring all the elementary goods of life, he evaluates himself at the level of these material goods: as the owner of a car of the latest brand, as the owner of a luxurious dacha, as part of his furniture set ... If a person lives to bring good to people, to facilitate them suffering in diseases, to give people joy, then he evaluates himself at the level of his humanity. He sets himself a goal worthy of man.

Only a supra-personal goal allows a person to live his life with dignity and get real joy. Yes, joy! Think: if a person sets himself the task of increasing the good in life, bringing happiness to people, what failures can befall him! Helped the wrong person who should have? But how many people do not need help. If you are a doctor, then maybe you have given the patient the wrong diagnosis? This happens with the best doctors. But overall, you helped more than you didn't help. No one is immune from mistakes. But the most important mistake, the fatal mistake, is the wrong choice of the main task in life. Not promoted - chagrin. Someone has the best furniture or the best car - also a chagrin, and what else!

Setting a career or acquisition as a goal, a person experiences much more grief than joy, and risks losing everything. And what can a person who rejoices in every good deed have to lose? It is only important that the good that a person does should be his inner need, come from the heart, and not just from the head, and not be a “principle” devoid of a sense of kindness. Therefore, the main life task must necessarily be a superpersonal task, and not an egoistic one. It should be dictated by kindness to people, love to the family, to one's city, to one's people, to one's country, to its great past, to all mankind.

Using Compression Techniques

The fragment consists of three paragraphs-microthemes, which can be titled as follows:

Life goal is a person's self-esteem.
A superpersonal goal allows a person to live life with dignity.
The main life task should be superpersonal, dictated by kindness and love.

1st paragraph: Using exclusion and replacement, we get:

2nd paragraph: As a result of compression by the elimination method, we get:

3rd paragraph: This paragraph contains the most important information, so we leave most of it, use the merge at the beginning of the paragraph, shorten the last sentence by replacing and excluding:

Brief summary:

When a person chooses a goal for himself in life, at the same time he gives himself an assessment. If a person sets himself the task of acquiring all the elementary goods of life, he evaluates himself at their level. If a person lives to bring good to people, then he evaluates himself at the level of his humanity. This is a goal worthy of a man.

Only a supra-personal goal allows a person to live his life with dignity. If a person sets himself the task of increasing the good in life, what failures can befall him? No one is immune from mistakes. But the most important mistake is the wrongly chosen main task in life.

Setting a career or acquisition as a goal, a person experiences more grief than joy, in contrast to a person who rejoiced at every good deed. It is only important that the good that a person does comes from the heart. Therefore, the main task of life should be a superpersonal task, and not an egoistic one. It should be dictated by kindness and love.

Evaluation of the result

Compression techniques are also evaluated in relation to micro-themes: if one or several compression techniques were used in all micro-themes, then this gives the maximum 3 points, respectively, in two micro-themes - 2 points, in one micro-theme - 1 point. If compression techniques were not used at all - 0 points.

The third criterion is the evaluation of the semantic integrity, coherence and consistency of the resulting text. It takes into account the correct division of the text into paragraphs, the absence of logical errors. The maximum number of points is 2. One logical error or one violation of division into paragraphs allows you to get one point, if there are more violations - 0 points.

Thus, for the content of a condensed presentation, the maximum number of points is 7.

Literacy is assessed according to criteria indicating the permissible number of spelling, punctuation, grammatical, speech errors. In addition, the actual accuracy of the statement is evaluated. If the work does not contain more than two spelling, two punctuation, two speech, one grammar and there are no errors in the understanding and use of terms, and there are no factual errors, then according to these criteria, the student receives the maximum 10 points.

In general, in total, a student can receive a maximum of 17 points for writing a presentation.

Features of presentation as a genre.

Presentation is a type of educational work, which is based on the reproduction of the content of someone else's text, the creation of a secondary text.

Unlike the essay, which is completely “led” by the author, nothing that is not in the original text should be in the presentation. The appearance in "your" text of background knowledge, facts and details not contained in the text is by no means encouraged. On the contrary, any creativity, fantasizing of this kind is regarded as a factual error and leads to a decrease in points.

Types of presentations.

In the methodological literature and in the practice of school teaching, various types of presentations are known. Presentations can be classified on three grounds: 1) according to the purpose of this type of exercise; 2) by the nature of the text material; 3) by the method of transferring the content of the text.

According to the purpose of the presentations can be control and training. Control presentations are held in all classes at the lessons of control, or verification, no more than once a quarter; teaching presentations are held three to six times a quarter.

By the nature of the text material presentations can be distinguished: a) narrative nature, b) with elements of description, c) presentation-description, d) with elements of reasoning, e) type of reasoning, f) type of characteristic, etc.

Content delivery method presentations are complete or detailed; close to the text; compressed, selective; with essay elements.

Any of these types of presentation can be complicated by a grammatical-stylistic or grammatical-spelling task, which serves as a means of developing coherent speech.

Conducting presentations in a certain system implies a gradual increase in difficulties and an increase in the role of students' independence, as well as a variety of types of presentations.

At narrative the form of presentation, its emotionality, the proposed text will be fully and completely assimilated by students, since it will evoke vivid and adequate images and ideas in them. It is known that the thinking of schoolchildren develops from visual-figurative, concrete to abstract, abstract, generalized, and in its development the importance of images is enormous.

Texts are different descriptive character. Description - a sequential enumeration of signs, features, phenomena. In texts of a descriptive nature, there is no plot that would emotionally capture the student, however, it requires the establishment of an internal dependence and interconnection of phenomena that the text itself does not say anything about. The student's thought gains greater freedom, independence, therefore, working on descriptive texts is a new level of difficulty compared to working on narrative texts.

More difficult for students is the presentation of texts type of reasoning. Arguing, it is necessary to express your opinion, reasonably confirm it; in the process of reasoning, active analytical-synthetic work of thought takes place, generalizations occur, conclusions are drawn. To present the type of reasoning, texts are used, the analysis of which requires the children's own judgments. Reasonably selected texts, as well as the nature of the questions asked by the teacher that cause discussion, contribute to the acquisition of the ability to reason by students.

Speaking about the varying degrees of complexity of textual material for presentations, it is necessary to keep in mind the comprehensive and deep familiarization of students with the content and composition of various types of narration, description and reasoning, which is also associated with the analysis of the linguistic side of the text, and therefore implies the presence of appropriate language training of students and their knowledge of literature.

Analyzing the nature of the textual material for presentations, it should be taken into account that, along with ready-made texts, films, filmstrips, radio programs, texts of various nature in their recording on a disk, etc. can serve as material for any type of presentation.

Work on the presentation is impossible without memorizing the text. What is the best way to do this? Psychologists, as you know, distinguish two types of memory: operational and long-term. RAM does not store information for long, including speech - somewhere around 10-15 seconds. Then the information received in the form of words is replaced by new information.

Long-term memory stores information much longer due to its concentration in images, schemes, semantic clots.

As the practice of conducting the exam shows, both types of memory help schoolchildren to memorize the text if individual expressions and phrases are transferred to a sheet of paper shortly after listening to the text. Notes and notes activate working memory, prolonging its validity, but most of the text is difficult to remember without highlighting micro-topics, without understanding the structure of the text, drawing up a plan, i.e. those forms of work with which you can use the reserves of long-term memory.

How to get started right?

At the exam, the source text is read out by the teacher twice with an interval of 5-7 minutes. Slowly enough each time. Work on the presentation begins already at the first acquaintance with the text. At this stage, the task of students is, firstly, to understand the structure of the text, to highlight the most important semantic parts (micro-themes) and, secondly, to compile working materials: make the necessary notes, write down their own names, dates, examples of direct speech.

When reading again, these materials, of course, must be supplemented, checked, if necessary, corrected, and new statements and judgments from the text read must be included in their composition.

A plan will help you remember and reproduce what you heard, setting a complete program of further actions, it is advisable not to postpone this important stage of work, but you should not rush either.

How to make a plan?

Of great importance in teaching presentation is the work on the plan. Dividing the text into logically complete parts, highlighting the main idea in them and formulating a certain point of the plan, students develop generalizing thinking and at the same time improve their speech.

The degree of difficulty in working on the plan gradually increases: from the plan in the form of interrogative sentences, students, under the guidance of a teacher, move on to the plan in the form of narrative and descriptive sentences.

More difficult is a complex plan, which requires not a simple heading of parts, but the isolation of the main idea and evidence supporting it, a plan with an introduction and conclusion, a plan in the form of quotations.

The gradual increase in difficulties and the strengthening of the independence of students in the system of presentations is carried out when the content of the text is disclosed. If in texts of a narrative nature at the initial stage of education, schoolchildren should mainly find answers to the questions posed by the teacher, then at a higher level, the nature of the disclosure of the content also changes. Students are tasked not only to find answers in this text, but also to select material, argue the selection, and express their opinion in connection with the disclosure of the content.

Understanding and memorizing text based on recreative imagination.

As you know, in psychology there are different types of imagination: creative and recreative. Unlike creative imagination, aimed at creating new images, recreating is aimed at creating images that correspond to the verbal description. It is the recreating imagination that permeates the entire educational process; without it, it is impossible to imagine a full-fledged education.

Its role is especially important when reading a literary text. Of course, this does not apply to all reading. Such reading, which has the sole purpose of knowing “what is said here” and “what will happen next,” does not require active work of the imagination. But such reading, when you mentally “see and hear” everything that is being discussed, when you mentally transfer yourself to the depicted situation and “live” in it, such reading is impossible without the most active work of the imagination.

If the text has a dynamic plot, is saturated with dialogues, then when reading it, the imagination, as a rule, turns on involuntarily. With a descriptive text, the situation is different: its full understanding and memorization is impossible without the activity of the imagination, the inclusion of which requires certain volitional efforts.

Psychologists do not yet fully understand the processes that arise during the work of the imagination. Often we cannot control whether it works when perceiving text or not. One of the means of checking the involvement of the imagination is precisely the retelling (exposition). If the imagination was active while reading (listening) to the text, then the retelling will be accurate and complete. If the imagination is not turned on, the students make a large number of inaccuracies, missing the essential, distorting images, paying attention to minor details.

"Lazy" imagination makes it difficult to understand the text and the learning itself often gives a painful character, because. the child has to resort to mechanical memorization of the text, to elementary cramming.

Meanwhile, the recreative imagination is a subjective field of vision, a mental screen that can be developed to an amazing degree.

One of the effective techniques for developing recreative imagination is a type of task called "Turn on the imagination." It is formulated quite simply: “Imagine that everything you read about, you see on your “mental screen”. Turn it on every time you encounter a text." In the future, you can briefly remind about the need to activate the imagination: “Turn on your“ mental screen ”,“ Try to mentally see ... ”, etc.

The development of a recreative imagination is important not only in itself, but also in connection with attention, memorization, emotions, self-control, and, most importantly, understanding. Without seeing the picture mentally created by the writer, the student in many cases cannot not only remember, but also understand the text.

One of the most important requirements for working on presentations in a certain system is the diversity of their types. It is necessary to teach schoolchildren not only a complete or detailed presentation, but, starting from the elementary grades, to introduce into the work system both selective and concise, and a presentation with elements of an essay, and a presentation close to the text, gradually complicating the difficulties in conducting each of these types of exercises.

Characteristics of individual types of presentations and methods for their implementation.

complete or detailed - this is a type of presentation that involves a detailed, consistent retelling of the content of what is read or heard. The task of such a presentation is to teach schoolchildren to understand the content of the text, to establish a connection between the events or phenomena described in it, to convey the content without omitting details, to find the words necessary for this and to build sentences correctly.

Presentation close to text also involves a detailed, consistent retelling of the content of what has been read, but it differs from the full presentation in that the lesson, along with the content, deeply analyzes language tools. At the same time, the most figurative expressions are underlined, written down, and then included in the presentation.

The main task of a presentation close to the text is to educate schoolchildren in a conscious attitude to the ways of expressing thoughts, instilling in them the ability to expediently use the richness of the dictionary and synonymous forms available in the work. In the process of working on a presentation close to the text, students consolidate the previously acquired skills of detailed, consistent transmission of the content of what they have read based on its understanding, the ability to establish connections between phenomena, events and facts, etc.

Usually, during the conversation, a plan is drawn up close to the text of the presentation. The parts extracted from the text are written in relation to the points of the plan. The teacher carefully ensures that when presenting the students it is expedient to use the author's language means, correctly build sentences, and select the necessary vocabulary. With such an analysis, what is initially only mechanically remembered is comprehended. Students are taught to look at language as a reflection of thought; spontaneity in the use of linguistic means is replaced by consciousness in their use.

In the process of analysis, the teacher helps students to textually restore the content by rereading some parts of the text.

Expositions close to the text are carried out on the material of works both familiar to students and not familiar to them, but attracting attention with language expressiveness.

concise statement - This is a type of presentation that requires an extremely brief transmission of the main content of what is read or heard. The ability to briefly convey the content of what is read or heard is vital, and the skills acquired in the lessons of condensed presentation are used by students directly in life practice: in stories about a book they read, when transmitting the content of a movie they watched, a message they heard on the radio, etc. The skill of concise presentation is also necessary for in-depth work on educational and scientific literature: when taking notes on material, compiling abstracts, annotations.

In the process of text compression, the selection of material, its analysis, division into parts, selection of the main thing, its generalization takes place. A compressed transmission requires careful work on the design of thoughts: the construction of sentences, the selection of appropriate vocabulary, the wide use of synonymous linguistic means of expressing thoughts.

The main techniques used in text compression:

1)Separation of information into main and secondary, exclusion of irrelevant and secondary information (exclusion of secondary information can be solved by excluding words, phrases and whole sentences);

2)Collapse of the initial information due to generalizations (translation of the particular into the general).

The main language methods of source text compression include:

1.Exception:

· Elimination of repetitions;

· Exclusion of one or more of the synonyms;

· Exclusion of clarifying and explanatory constructions;

· Exclusion of a sentence fragment;

· Exclusion of one or more offers.

2.Summary:

· Replacing homogeneous members with a generalized name;

· Replacing hyponyms with hypernyms;

· Replacing a sentence or part of it with a definitive or negative pronoun with a generalizing meaning.

3. Simplify:

· Merging several sentences into one;

· Replacing a sentence or part of it with a demonstrative pronoun;

· Replacing a complex sentence with a simple one;

· Replacing a sentence fragment with a synonymous expression.

Mastering all these skills occurs gradually, in the process of conducting a series of concise presentations that become more complicated from class to class. So, in the 5th grade it is advisable to conduct a concise presentation of a separate part of the narrative work; in the 6th grade - a presentation of a text that is larger in volume, familiar and unfamiliar to children; in the 7th grade - a presentation of the content of a filmstrip, film, radio or television program; in the 8th grade - a concise presentation of journalistic texts; in grade 9 - taking notes on various articles of a business nature, writing abstracts, a concise presentation of an artistic or journalistic style.

Working on a concise presentation requires careful preparation from the teacher. The teacher first of all selects the appropriate text, analyzes it, divides it into logically complete parts and draws up an approximate plan for a detailed presentation of its content. He writes out difficult words and expressions, outlining ways to explain them. After that, he highlights the main thoughts in the text and, in the previously outlined detailed plan, singles out the points that are necessary for a brief transmission of the content, i.e. makes a short plan. In order to properly organize the work of students in the lesson, the teacher himself must prepare an exemplary summary.

Selective presentation - a type of presentation that requires a logically consistent, detailed transmission of content on one of the issues covered in this work.

In selective presentation, thematic selection of material takes place based on the analysis of the text, isolating from it those parts that relate to this topic, generalizing the selected, oral and written transmission of the content in a certain sequence. Such work is possible if schoolchildren have the skills of fluent, skimming reading and some ability to select material.

The nature and content of the work on a selective presentation determine the methodology for its implementation.

The basis for writing a selective presentation is drawing up a plan on a given topic, retelling the text, first orally, and then in writing.

When retelling, a grammatical and stylistic analysis of the text is carried out, attention is paid to the construction of sentences, the establishment of links between them, the selection of the appropriate vocabulary, etc.

Literary and artistic works or excerpts from them can serve as a material for a selective presentation; in the 9th grade - journalism, literary critical articles. Since the selective presentation provides for a thematic selection of material, texts for it are selected much larger in volume than for other types of presentation.

Working on a selective presentation, students consolidate the skills of a consistent, complete, detailed transfer of content, because. the sequence and detailed coverage of a given topic is one of the requirements of a selective presentation. The skills of text analysis, selection of material are also consolidated and improved, due not to the degree of importance of individual provisions of the text, as in a concise presentation, but to a given topic.

Presentation with essay elements involves, along with the transfer of the content of this text, the inclusion in the retelling of purely creative moments, for example: inventing an end to this passage; inserting descriptions of objects, phenomena, events mentioned in the text, based on their own observations and impressions of what they saw, heard or read; inventing the beginning of a story, etc. In the process of teaching a presentation with elements of an essay, students are also expected to perform tasks that gradually become more difficult.

Assignments: to evaluate the act of a particular character, to express their opinion about the behavior of the hero of the work, etc., the implementation of which requires a comprehensively justified motivation, is certainly more difficult for students and represents a higher degree of difficulty. The inclusion in the retelling of reasoning on the topics: “What is a feat”, “How do I understand my duty to the Motherland”, “What is friendship”, etc., naturally arising from the very content of the text, should also take place in these lessons. The task to introduce a description into the presentation (of the situation, pictures of nature, the appearance of heroes, labor processes, phenomena, events, etc.), based on personal observations or impressions of students and organically arising from the content of the presentation, usually arouses great interest among schoolchildren.

Coming up with an end or beginning, including small episodes in the presentation, and other tasks are usually narrative in nature and are also based on the personal impressions and experiences of students. The ending of the presentation can also serve as a reasoning caused by the content of the text being presented and its analysis.

Literature

1.Antonova E.S. Methods of teaching the Russian language: a communicative-activity approach. M.: KNORUS, 2007.

2.Borisenko N.A. How we prepare for a new exam in the 9th grade // Russian Language, No. 8/2007.

3.Granik G.G., Bondarenko S.M., Kontsevaya L.A. How to teach to work with a book. M., 1995. S.145-200.

4.Granik G.G., Borisenko N.A. The development of the recreative imagination in the lessons of the Russian language// Russian language at school. 2006. No. 6. pp. 3-10.

5.Evgrafova E.M. Understanding and imagination / / Russian language, No. 5/2003. p.14

6.Evgrafova E.M. Secrets of presentation//Russian language, No. 34/1999; No. 10/2000; No. 12/2001.

7.Methods of speech development in the lessons of the Russian language / Ed. T.A. Ladyzhenskaya. M.: Education, 1991.

8.Khaustova D.A. Different types of presentations//Russian language, No. 3/2006.

This type of work allows you to check the depth of understanding of the text, the ability to highlight the main and secondary information, build a coherent statement based on the abbreviated text.

Basic requirements for a concise presentation:

The information of the source text needs to be reduced and summarized;
It is necessary to reflect the main thoughts of the author, distortion of the author's judgments is not allowed;
The sequence of presentation of the content must be preserved;
It is necessary to transfer micro-themes of the source text, there are three of them; omission of a micro-theme or violation of paragraph division leads to a decrease in the mark.

Types of text compression

When working with visually perceived text, you can practice shortening the text in various ways. There are several techniques for compressing (that is, compressing) text:

Exception.

Basic principles of text compression:

As a result of the reduction, a coherent, logical text should be obtained, and not its plan or detailed retelling.

In the new text, all microthemes, the main idea of the original text, should be preserved.

After checking the content, carefully check the literacy (presence of grammatical, speech, spelling, punctuation errors), rewrite the concise statement in a clean copy.

Text Compression Example

Consider, as a text for a concise presentation, a fragment of an article by D. S. Likhachev “Purpose and self-esteem”.

Source text:

When a person consciously or intuitively chooses a goal, a life task for himself, at the same time he involuntarily gives himself an assessment. By what a person lives for, one can judge his self-esteem - low or high. If a person sets himself the task of acquiring all the elementary goods of life, he evaluates himself at the level of these material goods: as the owner of a car of the latest brand, as the owner of a luxurious dacha, as part of his furniture set ... If a person lives to bring good to people, to facilitate them suffering in diseases, to give people joy, then he evaluates himself at the level of his humanity. He sets himself a goal worthy of man.

Only a supra-personal goal allows a person to live his life with dignity and get real joy. Yes, joy! Think: if a person sets himself the task of increasing the good in life, bringing happiness to people, what failures can befall him! Helped the wrong person who should have? But how many people do not need help. If you are a doctor, then maybe you have given the patient the wrong diagnosis? This happens with the best doctors. But overall, you helped more than you didn't help. No one is immune from mistakes. But the most important mistake, the fatal mistake, is the wrong choice of the main task in life. Not promoted - chagrin. Someone has the best furniture or the best car - also a chagrin, and what else!

Setting a career or acquisition as a goal, a person experiences much more grief than joy, and risks losing everything. And what can a person who rejoices in every good deed have to lose? It is only important that the good that a person does should be his inner need, come from the heart, and not just from the head, and not be a “principle” devoid of a sense of kindness. Therefore, the main life task must necessarily be a superpersonal task, and not an egoistic one. It should be dictated by kindness to people, love to the family, to one's city, to one's people, to one's country, to its great past, to all mankind.

Using Compression Techniques

The fragment consists of three paragraphs-microthemes, which can be titled as follows:

Life goal is a person's self-esteem.
A superpersonal goal allows a person to live life with dignity.
The main life task should be superpersonal, dictated by kindness and love.

1st paragraph: Using exclusion and replacement, we get:

2nd paragraph: As a result of compression by the elimination method, we get:

3rd paragraph: This paragraph contains the most important information, so we leave most of it, use the merge at the beginning of the paragraph, shorten the last sentence by replacing and excluding:

Brief summary:

Evaluation of the result

Thus, for the content of a condensed presentation, the maximum number of points is 7.

In general, in total, a student can receive a maximum of 17 points for writing a presentation.

Basic requirements for presentation. Types of presentations.

Comprehension and memorization of text based

recreating imagination

Presentation - one of the traditional types of written work at school - has experienced a real boom in recent years. It has become the most common form of the final exam. Suffice it to say that in all three versions of the final certification in the 9th grade, the presentation is the first part of the examination paper.

Most often, ninth graders complain about their memory and inability to write quickly. Here is a typical answer: “The text is very large, but it is read only twice, I do not have time to write anything down.” And only in one of the 120 works was there a completely “adult” approach to business: “To write a presentation, you need to understand the text, remember it and be able to highlight microthemes. This is the main difficulty."

The ability to write a presentation, according to ninth graders, can be useful “when passing the exam”, “when taking notes of lectures at the institute”, “journalists or reporters, if you need to quickly write down what the “star” is talking about, and the recorder will break”, “in the police when to write a protocol. Many generally deny the need for such a skill. However, there are also quite mature judgments: presentation is memory training, and any person needs a good memory.

The established practice of writing a presentation - deliberately slow reading of the source text, often more like dictation, and permission to take notes during the second hearing - has led to the fact that the main task for our students has become the desire to write down as quickly and as much as possible. If the students were deprived of such an opportunity, less than 30% would cope with the presentation. Here is one of the typical answers: “I don’t think I’ll write, I’ve never tried anything like that.” In fact, verbatim writing of the text is no better than ordinary cramming. Memorization without understanding, characteristic of children of preschool and primary school age, practically returns ninth graders to childhood.

First of all, the listened text needs to be understood, and only a few graduates have this ability. According to the results of a survey of 200 schools in 76 regions of the country, in which about 170 thousand schoolchildren of the first and tenth grades participated, more than 50%> tenth graders found it difficult to extract meaning from an elementary text, only 30% expressed their opinion in connection with what they read, 90% of high school students there is no complete understanding of the meaning of the literary text.

Unfortunately, the teacher himself often underestimates the role of understanding in teaching presentation. Meanwhile, properly organized work in preparing for presentation is, first of all, work on understanding and memorizing the text. If the student misses some essential thoughts of the source text, distorts the main idea, does not feel the author's attitude, this means that the text is not understood or not fully understood.

EXAMPLE 1. Source text "A discovery that is two hundred years too late»

About a hundred years ago, a mathematician lived in a city in Russia. All his life he patiently struggled with the solution of a complex mathematical problem. Neither outsiders nor acquaintances could understand what the eccentric was suffering from.

Some pity him, others laugh at him. He paid no attention to anyone or anything around him. He lived like Robinson on a desert island. Only his island was not surrounded by a sea of water, but by a sea of misunderstanding.

All mathematical rules, except for the most important ones, which he managed to learn when he was a short student at school, he rediscovered for himself.

And what he wanted to build out of them, he built the way Robinson built his boat. He suffered the same way, made the same mistakes, did the same unnecessary work and began to redo everything from the beginning,

because no one could help or advise him.

Many years later. He finished his work and showed it to a math teacher he knew. The teacher studied it for a long time, and when he figured it out, he transferred his work to the university. A few days later, scientists invited the eccentric to their place. They looked at him with admiration and pity. There was something to admire and something to regret. The eccentric has made a great mathematical discovery! So the chairman of the meeting told him. But, alas, two hundred years before him, another mathematician, Isaac Newton, had already made this discovery.

At first, the old man did not believe what he was told. It was explained to him that Newton wrote his books on mathematics in Latin. And in his old age, he sat down with textbooks of the Latin language. Learned Latin. I read Newton's book and found out that everything he was told at a meeting at the university was true. He really made a discovery. But this discovery has long been known to the world. Life has been lived in vain.

This sad story was told by the writer N. Garin-Mikhailovsky. He called the story about the eccentric "Genius" and made a note to the story that this story was not invented, but actually happened.

Who knows what discoveries this unknown genius could have given people if he had known about Newton's discovery earlier and directed his talent to the discovery of what is not yet known to people!

(325 words) (S. Lvov)

Presentation text

Once upon a time there was a mathematician who solved one problem all his life. But no one wanted to help him, everyone just laughed at him. He lived like Robinson on a desert island. He himself discovered all the mathematical rules that are taught in school.

Many years later, the eccentric showed the solution to the problem, to which he devoted his whole life, to a familiar teacher. The teacher could not figure out the problem for a long time and showed it to the scientists. The old man was invited to a meeting at the university. Everyone began to admire him, because he, it turns out, made an outstanding discovery.

One writer who told the story of a mathematician eccentric correctly titled his story "Genius".

The work does not require comments. And the point here is not in violations of logic or poverty of the language. The problem is much more serious: the text is simply not understood, its main idea is not understood (“Humanity would recognize a mathematician who made a great discovery as a genius if Newton had not made this discovery two hundred years before him.”) Key words and phrases were ignored ( did not go to school for long, unnecessary work, rediscovered, looked with admiration and pity, has long been known to the world, a sad story). Even such strong signals as a telling title and sentences directly revealing the author's position (they are highlighted in the text) passed by the author of the presentation.

It must be admitted that more than half of the class did not cope with the task of formulating the main idea of the text. Here are statements that testify to a complete misunderstanding of the text.

This man achieved everything all his life himself, he received an education by his own work. He was a genius and managed to discover the laws of Newton himself.

The meaning of this text is to show that there are people who arouse our sympathy and pity.

In life, geniuses are strange people, and it is difficult for them to communicate with people, to be in society, so no one recognizes our hero. But I believe that his suffering was not in vain, since this discovery was the goal of his life and he achieved everything that was planned.

I think that the main problem of this text is the unwillingness of people to help each other, the unwillingness to accept help and, in general, the problem of relations between people. If a mathematician had listened to others, he would not have lived his life in vain. He could have put his mind to something more useful.

And only in some works the understanding of the read was shown.

1. “The main idea of the text can be formulated using the well-known expressions “reinvent the wheel” and “discover America”. Indeed, why invent something that was done a long time ago before you by others?

Unfortunately, such cases are not uncommon today. Therefore, before you start inventing something, you must first study the chosen field of science well. Understand what and to what extent others have done before you.

2. “Sergey Lvov told us a sad story, or rather, retold it to us. It's a pity for this eccentric, this "unknown genius" who spent all his strength on the discovery made by Newton two hundred years before him.

In order not to discover what is already open, you need to read a lot, study a lot, communicate with other scientists, and not surround yourself with a "sea of misunderstanding." This is precisely the main (it must be said, rather trivial) idea of this text.

In a similar situation, the hero of V. Shukshin's story "Stubborn", who took up the invention of a perpetual motion machine, found himself in a similar situation. Of course, nothing came of this, because the creation of a perpetuum mobile, as you know, contradicts the laws of physics. Monya (that is the name of the hero of Shukshin) did not believe this and "all devoted himself to the great inventive task". At the end of the story, the engineer directly addresses the "stubborn" Monet: "You need to study, my friend, then everything will be clear." Despite all its banality, the advice is actually correct. If this "genius" - a mathematician had received a good mathematical education (most likely he simply did not have such an opportunity), he would have directed his talent to the discovery of what is not yet known to people.

Is it possible to put the presentation at the service of understanding the text? What are the modern approaches to writing a presentation? What can be done so that the presentation from the “boring” genre, as it is most often perceived by students, becomes an effective means of their development?

Presentation as a genre

But first, let's find out the features of presentation as a genre.

Statement - a type of educational work, which is based on the reproduction of the content of someone else's text, the creation of a secondary text. The words presentation and retelling are often used as synonyms, but the term retelling more often refers to the oral form of text reproduction.

The specificity of the presentation follows from its nature as a secondary text.

Let's turn to the class with the question: "What should not be confused with the presentation?". Answer: “Of course, with an essay” - will not follow immediately. We asked this “childish” question not by chance. It is necessary once and for all to explain to students that these genres have different tasks and different specifics. Unlike the essay, which is completely “led” by the author, nothing that is not in the original text should be in the presentation. The appearance in "one's own" text of background knowledge, facts and details not contained in the text is by no means encouraged. On the contrary, any "creativity", fantasizing of this kind is regarded as a factual error and leads to a decrease in points.

So, in a presentation about Pushkin and Pushchin (text No. 1 from a well-known collection), the student should not mention that the meeting took place on January 11, 1825 in Mikhailovsky, but in a presentation about the Battle of Borodino (text No. 47) in the phrase “Kutuzov first intends was “in the morning to start a new battle and stand to the end” no need to indicate the authorship of the quote. As a rule, errors of this kind are more characteristic of strong, erudite students. It is to them that information about the specifics of presentation as a genre should be addressed in the first place.

Types of presentation

Traditionally, the following types of presentation are distinguished.

In the form of speech: oral, written.

By volume: detailed, concise.

In relation to the content of the source text: complete, selective, presentation with an additional task (add the beginning / end, insert, retell the text from the 1st-3rd sheets, answer the question, etc.).

According to the perception of the source text: presentation of the read, visually perceived text, presentation of the heard, perceived by ear text, presentation of the text, perceived both by ear and visually.

According to the purpose of conducting: training, control.

The features of all these types of presentations are well known to the teacher. We only note that in the 9th grade you should not concentrate both your own efforts and the efforts of students on any one form. In the practice of preparing for the exam, there must be different texts, different presentations and, of course, different types of work, otherwise boredom and monotony - the main enemy of any activity - cannot be avoided. But, since there is very little time for presentation in the senior class (you also need to go through the program), it is best to select small texts for training and train some one specific skill.

Requirements for texts

The texts of the presentations do not satisfy not only us, teachers, but also the children: they seem to them monotonous, “pathetic”, incomprehensible, too long (“try to retell the text yourself in 400-500 words, and there are most of them in collections!”). The game called "If I were a writer of texts, I would suggest texts about ..." turned out to be very effective: the students named a variety of topics - about school, about problems that worry teenagers, about interesting people, about great discoveries, about technology, sports, music, relationships between people and even the future of mankind. "Anyone but the boring ones!"

Why do children name these topics? What is the leader in their choice? Without realizing it themselves, they act according to one criterion - emotional, choosing texts that primarily evoke positive emotions.

The selection of non-boring - informative, fascinating, problematic, smart, and sometimes humorous - texts excites and maintains cognitive interest, creates a favorable psychological climate in the classroom. Popular science and some journalistic texts are best suited for this purpose, less often - and only with a specific educational task - fiction.

The question of whether texts from classical works can be offered for presentation is debatable. Many methodologists believe that by transmitting the content of an artistically impeccable fragment close to the text, students learn those turns of speech that belong to Lermontov, Gogol, Tolstoy ... During the presentation, the imitation mechanism is turned on, which has a beneficial effect on the child's speech. But what does it mean to "retell in detail" Lermontov or Gogol (for example, the texts "About Pechorin", "About Gogol's Thick and Thin", or "About Sobakevich")? If the passage is not very large, which is not the case for exam texts, it can be memorized almost verbatim with incredible effort. However, in this case, there is no need to talk about any kind of understanding and development of speech. The situation with the detailed presentation of the classics is parodied by the students themselves in the genre of “bad advice”: “... you must replace all the words of the author with your own and at the same time preserve his style” (school No. 57 in Moscow, 7th grade, teacher - SV. Volkov).

How to present?

At first glance, the question may seem rather strange: the method of conducting the presentation is known to any teacher.

But it is worth abandoning some of the usual schemes and patterns.

Let's talk about the presentation method proposed in our textbooks.

The teacher reads the text for the first time. Pupils, listening, try to understand and remember the text. After the first reading, they retell the text in order to understand what they did not remember. This work usually takes 5-7 minutes.

The teacher reads the text a second time. Pupils pay attention to those places that they missed during the first reading. Then they retell the text again, make the necessary notes on the draft, draw up a plan, formulate the main idea, etc. And only after that they write a presentation.

Unlike the traditional method, during the retelling, children note not what they already remember well, but what they missed while listening to the text. The new methodology takes into account the psychological mechanisms that operate in the process of perceiving the text - the mechanisms of memorization and understanding. Speaking the text to himself, the student, albeit not immediately, realizes that he did not remember some parts of the text because he did not understand them. At the initial stage of training, one of the students can retell the text. In this case, control over memorization and understanding is carried out from the outside - by other students: they note factual errors, omissions, logical inconsistencies, etc. As a result of such joint activity with the class, even the weakest students gradually learn to retell.

The role of such a mental process as recreating imagination deserves a separate discussion.

Understanding and memorizing text based on recreative imagination

Its role is especially important when reading a literary text. “Of course, this does not apply to all reading. Such a reading, which pursues only one goal - to find out, "what is being said here and what will happen next," writes a well-known psychologist, "does not require active work of the imagination. But such a reading, when you mentally" see and hear "everything that is about speech, when you are mentally transferred to the depicted situation and "live" in it - such reading is impossible without the most active work of the imagination.

The foregoing can be fully attributed to the writing of the presentation.

The task of the teacher is to make sure that when perceiving a literary text, the student mentally “sees and hears” what he listens (reads). To achieve this, of course, is not easy. Recreating imagination in different people and children in particular is not developed to the same degree. Only a very few (less than 10% according to our experiments) are able to see with their "mind's eye" the images created by the writers.

EXAMPLE 2

Source text

In autumn the whole house is covered with leaves, and in two small rooms it becomes light, as in a flying garden.

Furnaces are crackling, it smells of apples, cleanly washed floors. Tits sit on branches, pour glass balls in their throats, ring, crackle and look at the windowsill, where there is a slice of black bread.

I rarely sleep at home. I spend most nights on the lakes, and when I stay at home I sleep in an old arbor at the back of the garden. It is overgrown with wild grapes. In the morning the sun hits it through the purple, purple, green and lemon foliage, and it always seems to me that I wake up inside a lit Christmas tree.

It is especially good in the gazebo on quiet autumn nights, when a leisurely sheer rain rustles in an undertone in the garden.

Cool air barely shakes the tongue of the candle. Angular shadows from grape leaves lie on the ceiling of the gazebo. A night butterfly, like a lump of gray raw silk, sits down on an open book and leaves shining dust on the page.

It smells of rain - a gentle and at the same time pungent smell of moisture, damp garden paths.

(154 words) (K. Paustovsky)

We specifically took descriptive text for analysis. If the text has a dynamic plot, is saturated with dialogues, then when reading it, the imagination, as a rule, turns on involuntarily. With a descriptive text, the situation is different: its full understanding and memorization is impossible without the activity of the imagination, the inclusion of which requires certain volitional efforts.

The text of K. Paustovsky, proposed for presentation, cannot be understood and retelled if the reader does not see the paintings created by the author, hear the sounds described, and smell the smells. Many students, after listening to the text for the first time, said that they did not remember anything. After they were asked to retell only what remained in their memory, some were able to recreate only individual elements of the depicted picture, while others represented a picture that was far from the author's. And most importantly, such children inevitably had failures in understanding.

Here are two examples of detailed presentations on this text. (Due to working conditions, students were not allowed to write down anything during the hearing.)

First presentation

In autumn the whole house is littered with foliage, and in two small rooms it is as bright as day. The house smells like apples, lilacs, as well as washed floors, like in a garden that has flown over. Outside the window, tits are sitting on a branch, they sort through glass balls on the windowsill and look at the bread.

When I stay at home, I mostly spend the night in a gazebo overgrown with wild grapes. In the mornings, I light purple and purple lights on the Christmas tree.

It is especially good in the gazebo when it is raining outside the window. It smells of rain and damp garden paths.”

Statement two

In autumn, in a house covered with leaves, it is light, like in a garden that has flown over. The crackling of red-hot stoves is heard, it smells of apples and washed floors. Outside the window, tits sit on the branches of trees, sorting through glass balls in their throats, ringing, crackling and looking at a slice of black bread lying on the windowsill.

I rarely sleep in the house, I usually go to the lakes. But when I stay at home, I like to sleep in an old pavilion overgrown with wild grapes. The sun shines through the branches of grapes in purple, green, lemon color, and then I feel like I am inside a lit Christmas tree. Angular shadows from the leaves of wild grapes fall on the walls and ceiling of the gazebo.

It is especially wonderful in the gazebo, when quiet autumn rain rustles in the garden. A fresh breeze sways the tongue of the candle. A butterfly flies quietly, and, landing on an open book, this gray lump of raw neck leaves silver sparkles on the pages of the book.

At night I feel the quiet music of the rain, the gentle and pungent smell of moisture, wet garden paths.

(142 words)

It is not difficult to guess, the author, which of the two presentations managed to turn on the imagination while listening to the text. And the point here is not in the completeness of the transfer of content and not in the richness and expressiveness of speech, but in the fact that the second student was able to recreate in visual, concrete-sensual images the pictures described in the text; hear the sound of rain, the sounds made by tits; smell the apples, clean floors...

The first exposition, with the exception of the opening and closing phrases, is a rather incoherent description. It captures the individual details of the overall picture. It is not clear from the text where and when the action takes place. It seems to be about autumn, but suddenly lilacs and a New Year tree appear; tits either sit outside the window, or on the windowsill and at the same time sort through glass balls - the author does not perceive metaphors and comparisons. Thus, it is a question of misunderstanding of the text. And this case is far from the only one: out of 28 students who wrote a presentation on this text, comprehension failures were noted in twelve.

Psychologists do not yet fully understand the processes that arise during the work of the imagination. Often we cannot often control whether it works when perceiving text or not. One of the means of checking the involvement of the imagination is precisely the retelling (exposition). If the imagination was active while reading (listening) to the text, then the retelling will be complete and accurate. If the imagination is not turned on, the students make a large number of inaccuracies, missing the essential, distorting images, paying attention to minor details. (Of course, this does not apply to all texts, but only to those that allow you to turn on the recreative imagination).

"Lazy" imagination makes it difficult to understand the text and often gives the learning itself a painful character, since the child has to resort to mechanical memorization of the text, to elementary cramming.

And meanwhile, recreating the imagination, in the figurative expression of an outstanding artist and scientist, "this is a subjective field of vision, a mental screen", "can be developed to an amazing degree." It is only necessary that the teacher himself realize the need to work in this direction.

This type of task is called "Turn on the imagination." It is formulated quite simply; “Imagine that everything you read about, you see on your “mental screen”. Turn it on every time you encounter a text." In the future, you can briefly remind about the need to activate the imagination: “Turn on your “mental screen”, “Try to mentally see ...”, “Let your imagination work”, etc.

The effectiveness of this technique has been confirmed by numerous experiments. Dry numbers speak for themselves: for those students who managed to turn on their imagination, memorization of the text improves four to five times.

The development of a recreative imagination is important not only in itself, but also in connection with attention, memorization, emotions, self-control, and most importantly, understanding. Without seeing the picture mentally created by the writer, the student in many cases cannot not only remember, but also understand the text.

What are the features of presentation as a genre? Which of them will you consider in your work?

How do your students feel about the presentation? Conduct the questionnaire proposed in the lecture in the class or make it up yourself. Tell us about the results of the survey. Do they match the data we received?

What are the requirements for selecting texts for presentation? Find in collections of presentations or select two texts that meet the specified requirements on your own.

What is the role of the processes of understanding and memorization in teaching presentation?

5. If the techniques for developing recreative imagination described in the lecture caught your attention, try applying them in your class and share your observations and conclusions. This can be done in the form of a page from a pedagogical diary or in any other free form.

Detailed and concise presentation

Analysis of microthemes. Ways to compress text. The technology of writing an essay based on the text of the presentation

Features of a detailed and concise presentation

Whatever form of final assessment a ninth grader chooses, he will have to write a presentation: a detailed or concise presentation with elements of an essay (traditional form), detailed (version 2007), concise (version 2008).

An analysis of the questionnaires shows that ninth-graders understand quite well the difference between a detailed and a concise presentation. Two-thirds of them believe that retelling close to the text is easier, since "you can rely on memory and the ability to write quickly." Although in the questionnaires there are also arguments, mostly naive, in favor of a concise presentation: “it is easier to write, because you will make fewer mistakes”, “it has less descriptions, all sorts of different details”, “teachers prefer brevity”.

"Compress" the text - it means "to shorten it, but at the same time keep the main idea in each paragraph"; “remove everything superfluous and leave only the main thing, and this is the most difficult thing”; "give up the details."

If we compare these statements with what the Methodists write about the detailed and concise presentation, it turns out that there are not so many differences.

The task of a detailed presentation is to reproduce the original text as fully as possible, preserving its compositional and linguistic features. The task of a concise presentation is to briefly, in a generalized form, convey the content of the text, select essential information, exclude details, and find speech means of generalization. With a concise presentation, it is not necessary to preserve the style features of the author's text, but the main thoughts of the author, the logical sequence of events, the characters of the characters and the situation should be conveyed without distortion.

An interesting technique that helps students understand the features of a detailed and concise presentation is offered by the Pskov methodologist. He compares the original text with a large nesting doll, a detailed presentation with a smaller nesting doll, and a concise presentation with the rest of the nesting dolls. “These last three nesting dolls are a concise presentation of the text. In one case, let's say, we were given three minutes (or 30 lines in a newspaper) for presentation, in another - two minutes (20 lines), in the third - a minute (or 10 lines). And so we got texts of different degrees of compression, compressed presentations, and we all created them on the basis of the original one. Therefore, they are somewhat similar to each other in the most important way, and, of course, to the first, source text.

If this explanation is accompanied by an appropriate figure or diagram, students will see that the text can be compressed to varying degrees, but the main and essential from the original text should be preserved in the secondary text.

Obviously, not every text is suitable for a compressed presentation, but only one that has something to compress. The amount of text for a concise presentation should be larger than for a detailed one. (For some reason, this criterion is not taken into account by the compilers of the latest version of the examination paper, who offer texts for a concise presentation, in which there are only 220-250 words. The reaction of students to the task is typical: “Yes, there is nothing to compress here!”; “How to shorten the text, where are two hundred words, up to ninety? Leave every other word?".)

A concise presentation is considered the most difficult type of presentation because many students do not know how to highlight the main and other important thoughts, they do not know how to distract from irrelevant information.

According to psychologists, a brief retelling is a technique that is inorganic for children's nature. Children gravitate towards unnecessary details. And if they are not specifically taught, the task of retelling the text briefly is absolutely impossible for many. This is also confirmed by experimental data: only 14% of students in grades 8-9 can make such a retelling2. Often the words short and short when applied to retelling are synonymous for schoolchildren: when retelling, the text may become shorter, but at the same time the main thing often disappears, essential information is skipped.

The role of this type of presentation can hardly be overestimated. It is in a brief retelling that the degree of understanding of the text is revealed, it is a litmus test of understanding. If the text is not understood or understood partially, a brief retelling will reveal all defects in perception.

How to teach students to write a concise statement? What techniques can be used? What is the best material for this? Here are the questions teachers usually ask.

Text compression methods and techniques

A concise presentation requires special logical work. There are two main methods of text compression (compression)3: 1) exclusion of details; 2) generalization. With an exception, you must first highlight the main thing, and then remove the details (details). When summarizing the material, we first single out single significant facts (we omit the insignificant ones), combine them into one whole, select the appropriate language means and compose a new text. Which compression method to use in each particular case will depend on the communicative task and the characteristics of the text.

The named methods of text compression are not equally mastered by students. Some with difficulty single out the main thing and find the essential, bogged down in countless details; others, on the contrary, compress the text so much that there is no longer anything alive in it and it becomes more like a plan or diagram. In both cases we are dealing with the difficulties of the process of abstraction. However, like any other ability of human thinking, the ability to abstract is amenable to training.

Here are the types of tasks aimed at text compression.

Shorten the text by one third (half, three quarters...).

Shorten the text by conveying its content in one or two sentences.

Remove the unnecessary from your point of view in the text.

Compose a “telegram” based on the text, i.e. highlight and very briefly (after all, every word in a telegram is expensive) formulate the main thing in the text.

EXAMPLE 1

Exercise 1. Listen to the text, write a concise summary, cutting the text in half.

Source text

In addition to the legends about Hercules, the ancient Greeks also spoke about two twin brothers - Hercules and Iphicles. Despite the fact that the brothers were very similar from childhood, they grew up different.

It's still very early, and the boys are sleepy. Iphicles pulls a blanket over his head in order to watch interesting dreams longer, and Hercules runs to wash himself to a cold stream.

Here the brothers are walking along the road and they see: on the way there is a large puddle. Hercules steps back, runs up and jumps over an obstacle, and Iphicles, grumbling with displeasure, is looking for a workaround.

The brothers see: a beautiful apple is on a high branch of a tree. “Too high,” Iphicles grumbles. “I don’t really want this apple.” Hercules jumps - and the fruit is in his hands.

When the legs get tired and the lips dry up from thirst, and the rest is still far away, Iphicles usually says: "Let's rest here, under the bush." “We'd better run,” Hercules suggests. “That way we’ll get through the road sooner.”

Hercules, who at first was an ordinary boy, later becomes a hero, a monster slayer. And all this is only because from childhood he was used to winning daily victories over difficulties, over himself.

In this ancient legend, the deepest meaning is hidden: will is the ability to control oneself, this is the ability to overcome obstacles.

(From a magazine) (176 words)

Synopsis text

The ancient Greeks have a legend about Hercules and Iphicles. Although they were twins, the brothers grew up different.

In the early morning, when Iphicles is still sleeping, Hercules runs to wash himself to a cold stream.

Seeing a puddle on the way, Hercules jumps over it, and Iphicles bypasses the obstacle.

An apple hangs high on a tree. Iphicles is too lazy to climb after him, and Hercules immediately gets the fruit.

When there is no more strength to go, Iphicles offers to make a halt, and Hercules - to run forward.

Although Hercules, like Iphicles, was at first an ordinary boy, he became a hero, because from childhood he learned to overcome difficulties, brought up his will.

This simple example can show students specific techniques for compressing text:

1) exclusion of details, minor facts (pulls a blanket over his head in order to watch interesting dreams longer);

2) exclusion of direct speech or translation of direct speech into indirect speech (4th and 5th paragraphs, someone else's speech is conveyed using simple sentences with an addition indicating the topic of speech).

When teaching a concise presentation, a certain sequence of actions is observed, which can be written in the form of the following instruction.

Instruction "How to write a concise summary"

Highlight the essential (i.e., important, necessary) thoughts in the text.

Find the main idea among them.

Break the text into parts, grouping it around the essential thoughts.

Give a title to each part and make a plan.

Think about what can be excluded in each part, what details to refuse.

What facts (examples, cases) can be combined, summarized in adjacent parts of the text?

Think about the means of communication between the parts.

Translate the selected information into "your" language.

Write down this abbreviated, "wrung out" text on a draft.

The practice of writing essays with essay elements

Before proceeding to a specific analysis of the texts, we make one general remark. In our opinion, the presentation "in its pure form" does not have the developing effect that the presentation with elements of the composition and the work on understanding the text that precedes it give. “Just a presentation”, starting from about the 8th grade, students are no longer interested in writing. But the presentation, complicated by additional tasks aimed at highlighting the main idea, working with the title, creative processing of the text, etc., students write with much greater interest, since it allows, firstly, to better understand the text, and secondly secondly, to include the knowledge obtained from the text into an already existing system of knowledge, to demonstrate one's erudition, to show creative abilities. With this approach, the presentation in the 9th grade can be considered as a certain stage of preparation for the exam (writing part C) in the 11th grade. Retelling the text (first of all, briefly), the student is already doing serious work to comprehend its content, a correctly “wrung out” text is the basis for writing an essay.

Here are several types of tasks, according to the model of which you can make tasks for a variety of texts. Each group of tasks aims to train a certain method of working with text.

I. Tasks aimed at the ability to predict the content of the text.

1. Read the title and try to guess what (whom) the text will be about.

After listening to the text, check your guesses.

Examples of headings: “The discovery that was two hundred years late”, “Sad collection”, “Fifteen Louis Fifteenth” - the names of texts by S. Lvov; "Man from the Moon" (about Miklouho-Maclay), "Raphael of Violin Mastery" (about Stradivarius).

2. Listen or read the beginning of the text (first sentence, first paragraph) on which you will write the presentation, and try to guess what will be discussed next (what events will follow, what thoughts will be expressed ...).

The characters in Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, the Hatter and the March Hare, were known to be constantly busy drinking tea. When the dishes became dirty, they did not wash them, but simply moved to another place.

“What will happen when you reach the end? Alice dared to ask.

Is it time for us to change the subject? - suggested the March Hare "...

(Continuation of the text: “This dialogue is given in one of his books by the founder of cybernetics, the American scientist Norbert Wiener, speaking about the use of nature by man, the limited environmental issues.)

Exercise. Read the beginning of two texts that talk about the same thing but in different ways. Find questions hidden in the text. Express your guesses about the further content of each text. (Between reading the first and second text, time is given to complete the task.)

Leaning over a geographical atlas, the German geophysicist Alfred Wegener made an outstanding discovery at the turn of the 20th century: the eastern coasts of South America and the western coasts of Africa can be combined as precisely as the corresponding parts of a children's split puzzle picture.

In 1913, the geophysicist Wegener published The Origin of Continents and Oceans. In it, he outlined his famous hypothesis, which was called the theory of displacement, or the theory of continental drift.

(What is this hypothesis? What facts support it?)

3. Statement with continuation: “Read the text in which there is no ending. Come up with your own continuation of the story, and then compare it with the author's. (Options. Continue the story so that it becomes clear why the author gave the story such a title. Try to complete the text by suggesting a possible scenario.)

II. Tasks aimed at the ability to highlight the main thing in the text (concept *).

Find sentences that contain the main idea of the text, or formulate it yourself.

Find the main event.

Arrange the events in order of importance.

4. Put the most important information in the first place, at the beginning of the presentation. Transfer the content of the remaining parts of the text concisely (or selectively).

III. Tasks aimed at interpreting the text.

1. Explain how you understand the statement that ...

3. Express your opinion in connection with the reading (write about your understanding of the event).

4. Match the read text with others or choose a similar one in meaning.

5. Give a reasonable answer to the question asked by the author.

IV. Tasks aimed at creative processing of the text.

Make an insert in the text: enter a description of your favorite game (favorite season ...), a reasoning about the actions of the hero, a story about ... .

Complete the text with similar examples.

Find the general and particular in the text. Tell first about the particular, and then retell the fragment, which is a general reasoning.

Find in the text the parts that are the cause and the parts that are the effect.

Put in the first place the most interesting information for you and retell it in detail. Retell the remaining parts of the text concisely6.

Whatever creative task we propose for presentation, it is important that the student reflects on the text, asks himself questions, makes assumptions and checks them in the process of reading, and after reading he is able to express the main idea, draw up a plan, answer questions.

However, the "dialogue with the text" does not end there. The next important step is the reflection of the text (reflection, reflection). At this stage, the student asks himself about the following questions:

What did I learn from the text?

What facts were unexpected for me?

What do I think about it?

How does this compare to what I already know?

What thoughts do these facts lead me to?

Have I seen anything similar before - in life, in literature, in cinema?

What facts, examples, cases can I use in my essay?

A chain of such questions is, in fact, an algorithm for the student's internal work with the text. Of course, this is not yet the essay itself, but the stage of reflection, comprehension of the text and inventory of one's knowledge and ideas is very important on the way to creating the text of a future essay.

These assignments aim to:

firstly, to update previous knowledge: after all, what we learn is determined by what we already know;

secondly, to give learning an active character: knowledge cannot be “invested”, it can only be appropriated;

EXAMPLE 2 Source text

Exercise. Read an excerpt from the Austrian writer Stefan Zweig's Magellan. This is the beginning of the artistic biography of the great navigator. Title the text and retell it in detail. »

First there were spices. Ever since the Romans, in their travels and wars, first learned the charm of spicy and intoxicating oriental spices, the West can no longer and does not want to do without Indian spices, without spices, despite the fact that they were expensive and constantly rising in price.

At the beginning of the second millennium, the same pepper that now stands on the kitchen shelf at

any mistress, counted by grains and was regarded as worth its weight in gold. Its value was so constant that many cities and states paid for it instead of precious metals. Ginger, cinnamon, cinchona peel were weighed on jewelry and pharmaceutical scales, tightly closing the windows at the same time, so that the precious speck of dust would not be blown away by a draft. No matter how absurd, in the modern view, such a price, it becomes clear when you remember the difficulties of their delivery and the risk associated with it.

What dangers did not have to overcome on the way ships, caravans and convoys with spices before they got from the green bush of the Malay Archipelago to their last berth - the counter of a European merchant! In how many hands did the product pass through the seas and deserts until it reached the last buyer! Modern researchers have calculated that Indian spices must have passed through no less than twelve predatory hands before ending up on the table of a European.

Long, incredibly long way! But is there another, shorter and easier way to achieve the cherished goal? Seafarers, together with monarchs and merchants, began to look for the answer to this question. The courage that prompted Columbus and Magellan to move to the west, and Vasco da Gama to the south, was born, first of all, from a purposeful desire to find a new way to the east.

Strange as it may seem at first glance, it was spices that became the completely earthly, material cause of all those great discoveries that were made in the heroic 16th century. Monarchs and merchants would never have equipped a fleet for brave conquistadors if these expeditions to unknown countries did not at the same time promise a thousandfold reimbursement of the money spent.

First there were spices.

(According to S. Zweig) (306 words)

Creative task. Write how you feel about the author’s idea that “it was the spices that became the completely earthly, material cause” of the great geographical discoveries.

The text caused a variety of reactions among the ninth-graders: from “interesting, fascinating, beautiful, I have never read anything like it!” to "strange, incomprehensible, some kind of abnormal."

Here are some statements of students who worked according to the method proposed above: I learned a lot of interesting facts. For example, the fact that pepper was worth its weight in gold and that when it was weighed, doors and windows were closed in the house; It turns out that spices, before getting to Europe, made a long way; It seemed most unexpected that the author considers spices to be the main, “material” reason for all the great geographical discoveries. It is hardly possible to agree with this. I read about the expeditions of Columbus and Magellan, but nothing was said about it. They were looking for something completely different. What's with the spices? The text, of course, is interesting, but Zweig's thought is somehow strange, I would say, paradoxical. Although, maybe there is something in this; This makes you look at known facts from an unusual angle, prompts different thoughts; It is probably no coincidence that the text begins and ends with the same phrase; I would like to read something else about the great navigators, maybe Zweig himself, if the book is not very large. I'll look on the Internet. (The students gave answers to questions in writing, hence the book turns and expressions.)

Whatever assessment the students give to the text, the main thing is that it made them think, actively discuss what they read, confront different opinions, take nothing for granted, and finally, aroused a desire to learn more about the subject of discussion, turn to other books, sources of information. But these are the goals we are striving for.

PRIMERZ » Original text*

sad collection

Have you heard the name Galvani? Yes, yes, the same Italian scientist who did experiments with a frog's leg and electric current.

Now they seem to us the hoary antiquity of science, but they were once an important page in the study of electricity.

When Galvani told his fellow scientists about his experiments, he was ridiculed.

In 1873, the French Academy of Sciences by a majority refused to accept Darwin as a member, and five years later they ridiculed Edison's invention.

When the physicist de Monsel, at the request of Edison, showed at a meeting of the academy how the apparatus he invented for recording and reproducing sounds works, one of the academicians jumped up and shouted at him:

Scoundrel! You dare to come here to fool us with the tricks of a pathetic ventriloquist! Can any of us agree to believe that a pitiful piece of metal can repeat the noble sound of a human voice?

And the majority of those present supported his angry speech.

They ridiculed and vilified Jenner, the scientist who proposed the smallpox inoculation. And the doctor who offered pain relief during operations.

They poisoned the inventor of the steamboat. They made fun of the inventor of the steam locomotive. Teased the inventor of the car.

These are just a few extracts from a very long and very sad collection. A person who made a discovery or invented something new often saw not one opponent but many against him. And his opponents used to say to him like this:

You are wrong, because there are more of us.

Sometimes they said it politely. Sometimes abruptly. Sometimes viciously. But always with the certainty that if there are more of them, those who say that this cannot be, than those who believe that this is possible, then they are right, and the one who persists is a stubborn one who opposes himself to the majority. It cannot be that the whole company was out of step, and he alone was stepping in step!

Do you think that all these sad stories belong to distant times, when electricity lived only in Leyden banks, steam locomotives and cars were just learning to walk, no one thought about radio?

Of course, we, the people of the 21st century, would be more pleasant to think that all this is in the past. But it's not.

(S. Lvov) (310 words)

After reading the text, a conversation is held:

How many different facts of persecution of inventors are mentioned in the text? (Eight. Words and phrases containing these facts are in bold in the text.)

What is the meaning of the title?

Imagine that the content of the text needs to be presented in the form of a note of 90-100 words. Write a concise summary.

Creative task. Do you know of other similar examples? If known, write about it. If not, explain in writing the meaning of the title of the text and formulate the main idea.

Synopsis text

Galvani, who is known to us for his experiments with electric current and a frog's leg, was at one time ridiculed by the French Academy of Sciences. Later, fellow scientists did not accept Darwin as a member and ridiculed Edison's invention.

Then Jenner, who proposed vaccination against smallpox, the inventors of the steamboat, the steam locomotive, the automobile, were also misunderstood ... They were ridiculed, hounded, vilified.

Extracts from this sad collection can be done indefinitely. Unfortunately, the situation when the majority believes that they are right, and one person is wrong, happens often even today.

Here are the essays of two students who chose the first topic.

1. Sergei Lvov's text is devoted to the problem of non-recognition of scientists and their inventions. Not only in former times, but even today, many discoveries do not meet with understanding, and those who invented them are ridiculed and poisoned.

Imagine the following picture: what would have happened if Newton had not been recognized with his discovery of terrestrial gravity? Quite right, mankind would have lagged behind for many centuries, there would not have been many other inventions, man would not have flown to the stars.

For some reason, scientists are often recognized as brilliant only after their death. For example, Giordano Bruno, who claimed that the Earth revolves around the Sun, was recognized as a heretic and, by order of the Catholic Church, was burned at the stake. And now we bow before the power of his mind and speak of him as a fighter for the truth in science.

There have always been many such stories, and, unfortunately, they will never end, because there will always be people who do not want "the whole company to go out of step, but he alone steps in step."

Evaluation of presentation

Evaluation criteria. Types of errors. Analysis of students' written work

1. Evaluation of the detailed presentation

Checking the presentations - for all the familiarity of this work - causes serious difficulties for many philologists. The greatest difficulties are associated with the evaluation of the content of the work. And although the criteria for evaluating the presentation are developed in great detail, this does not eliminate the problem of subjectivity when checking the written work of students: the same presentation (and not just an essay!), Checked by different teachers, is evaluated by them differently - from 5 to 3.

The current practice of evaluating presentations is complicated by the fact that the teacher evaluates ordinary presentations according to one system - traditional1, and examination (new forms of certification) - according to another, to which he is not psychologically accustomed2.

If we compare the old criteria with the new ones, it turns out that they have basically remained the same. The content of a detailed presentation is evaluated in terms of: 1) the accuracy of the transmission of the original text and the presence of factual errors (from 3 to 0 points); 2) semantic integrity, speech coherence and sequence of presentation (1-0 points); 3) accuracy and clarity of speech (2-0 points).

Let's look at specific examples of how the proposed criteria work.

EXAMPLE 1 (examination version 2008 - the second model of certification work).

Source text

On New Year's Eve, the old Wolf especially acutely felt his loneliness. Getting bogged down in the snow, wading through tenacious fir trees, he wandered through the forest and thought about life.

Yes, he never got lucky. The best pieces were snatched from under his nose by others. The she-wolf - and she left him, because he brought few hares.

And how many troubles because of these hares were in his life! In the wolf world, hares decide everything. Before those who have a lot of hares, everyone stands on their hind legs, and who has few ...

The prickly trees continued to scratch the Wolf. “You can’t get away from these trees, even run from the forest! Wolf thought. “When will all this end?”

And suddenly ... The wolf even sat down on his tail, rubbed his eyes: is it really true? A real, lively hare sits under the tree. He sits with his head thrown back and looks somewhere up, and his eyes burn as if they show him God knows what.

“I wonder what he saw there? Wolf thought. “Let me take a look.” And he looked up at the tree.

How many Christmas trees he had seen in his lifetime, but he had never seen such a tree. She's all sparkle

It was covered with snowflakes, shimmered with moonlight, and it seemed that it was specially removed for the holiday, although there was not a single Christmas decoration on it. The wolf was so shocked by this beauty that he froze with his mouth open.

There is such beauty in the world! You look at her and you feel something turn over inside you. And the world seems to become cleaner and kinder3.

So the Hare and the Wolf sat side by side under the New Year tree, looked at this beauty, and something inside them turned over.

And for the first time, the Hare thought that there was something stronger in the world than wolves, and the Wolf thought that, frankly, happiness is not in hares ...

(According to F. Krivin) (276 words)

The text for a detailed presentation is taken from the collection of F. Krivin "Scientific Tales" (section "Naive Tales") and has, in addition to the author's title "The Wolf on the Christmas Tree", the subtitle - "New Year's Fairy Tale". Since the presentation was complicated by the task to title the text, it is natural that all these pre-text elements were not communicated to the students.

An analysis of the presentations shows that most of the students did not understand the author's intention, "did not notice" the allegorical form and stylistic features of the work. Many perceived the text as “too simple” and sighed with relief after the first reading: “Lucky! I got it quite easy! ”,“ Yes, there’s nothing to understand here! ”

Meanwhile, the text is not as simple as it seems at first glance. And the point is not only in its punctuation design, which is quite difficult for ninth-graders (methods of transmitting improperly direct speech are not included in the basic school curriculum), but also in those genre and language features, thanks to which the fairy tale becomes “scientific”, “naive”, “New Year's Eve”. ". It was they who, in most cases, were beyond the perception of ninth graders.

Here are some student work.

The beauty of New Year's Eve

On New Year's Eve, the old Wolf felt lonely. He wandered through the forest and thought about life. He never had any luck. The she-wolf left him because he did not bring enough hares. In the wolf world, everything is decided by hares.

The thorny branches scratched the Wolf. "You can't get away from these trees," thought the Wolf.

Suddenly the Wolf even sat down on his tail and rubbed his eyes. A real hare sits under the tree. He looks up. “I wonder what he saw there?” Wolf thought. He looked up at the tree.

The Christmas tree sparkled with snowflakes and shimmered with moonlight. The wolf was so shocked that he froze with his mouth open.

So the Hare and the Wolf sat next to each other. For the first time, the hare thought that there was something stronger than wolves in the world. The wolf thought that happiness was not in hares.

(121 words)

Only the factual information of the text is transmitted in the work. The content of the tale as a whole is presented without distortion, however, the general tone of the narration - colored with humor, the author's mockingly kind attitude towards the characters, the "naivety" of the story told - is not understood by the student. Since there is no indication of the completeness of the transfer of the content of the text in criterion I1, the student should have received 2 points according to this criterion. However, even without any special calculations, it can be seen that the text of the presentation is extremely simplified (slightly more than 40% of the content of the original text is saved) and there is nothing to give two points here. The presentation itself is written in a "telegraphic style", it is dominated by simple uncomplicated sentences (13 out of 17), of the complicated ones - sentences with homogeneous members. Obviously, criterion I1 should be supplemented with an indication not only of the accuracy of the content transfer, but also of completeness.

The question of how many points should be put according to the I2 criterion is controversial. There are no obvious logical errors in the work, the paragraphs (taking into account the general "telegraphic" style) are arranged correctly. However, the presentation does not have semantic integrity, therefore it is impossible to give the highest score.

Only the last criterion does not cause discrepancies. "The work is distinguished by the poverty of the dictionary and the monotony of the grammatical structure of speech." And then strictly according to the document: "The speech features of the source text are not transferred in the work" - About points.

As you can see, the proposed criteria do not always “work” when evaluating the presentation. If you follow them formally, then the work can be rated 3 or 4 points (out of 6). However, even with the naked eye it is clear that the work is weak and that instead of a detailed one, the student wrote a concise presentation, which means that he did not cope with the task.

To avoid the “scissors” effect, the inconsistency of the developed criteria with the traditional practice of analyzing and evaluating the presentation that has developed over the years, it seems that the following approach can help: after reading the work, you first need to evaluate it as a whole, albeit in the most inaccurate terms: “good / bad, strong / weak ”, then apply the criteria, and at the end, check the original submission again and, if necessary, adjust the scores.

Statement two

Forest on New Year's Eve

On New Year's Eve, the old Wolf especially acutely felt his loneliness. Getting stuck in the snow, wading through the fir trees, he wandered through the forest and thought about life.

Yes, he was never lucky, the best pieces went to others, the she-wolf - and she left him, because he brought few hares.

And how many troubles these hares brought him! In the wolf world, hares decide everything. Whoever has a lot of them, everyone stands on their hind legs in front of them, and whoever has few ...

The prickly trees kept scratching and scratching the Wolf. “You can’t get away from them, even if you run out of the forest! Wolf thought. “When will all this end?”

And suddenly the Wolf even sat down on his tail and rubbed his eyes: a real, live hare is sitting under the tree. He sits with his head thrown back and looks as if he knows what they are showing him.

“I wonder what he saw there? Wolf thought. “Let me take a look.” And he raised his head and looked at the tree.

How many Christmas trees he had never seen in his lifetime, but such a one! .. It sparkled and shimmered in the moonlight, and it seemed that it had been specially removed for the holiday, although there was not a single toy on it. The wolf was so shocked that he sat with his mouth open for a long time.

How beautiful it was in the New Year's forest! There is such an unearthly beauty in the world that you look at it - and everything inside you immediately turns over. And the world seems to be becoming cleaner and kinder, and people and animals are better.

So the Wolf and the Hare sat side by side under the tree, and something inside them turned over. And the Hare thought that there was something stronger than wolves in the world, and the Wolf thought that happiness was not in hares.

(264 words)

At first glance, it seems that for this work you can immediately put five. The presentation is very detailed, it retains the stylistic features of the text. There are no logical errors, the paragraphs are also all right. The richness of the dictionary, the variety of syntactic constructions used - all this can and should be assessed by an expert.

What is alarming, however, is the discrepancy between the title and the main idea of the text. And this alone may indicate a possible misunderstanding, or rather, misunderstanding of the text.

During the second reading, attention stops at the penultimate paragraph: “How beautiful it was in the New Year's forest! There is such an unearthly beauty in the world that you look at it - and everything inside you immediately turns over. And the world seems to be becoming cleaner and kinder, and people and animals -

better". The fact is that the highlighted sentences and parts of sentences are absent in F. Krivin's text. The first is a figment of the imagination of the author of the presentation, the rest are clearly borrowed from the text for reading (see task 3 in the test). According to the laws of the genre, the presentation should not contain anything that is not in the original text. The appearance in "one's own" text of background knowledge, thoughts, facts and details not contained in the text is regarded as a factual error.

The shortcomings noted make it impossible to give the work an initial high score, although in general it makes a good impression.

2. Evaluation of a concise presentation

When checking a compressed presentation, one more criterion is added to the criteria proposed above - the quality of text compression. In the total score, the weight of this criterion is small: if the examiner knows the methods of text compression, he gets 1 point, if he does not, 0 points.

Recall two main methods (techniques) of text compression: 1) exclusion of details, 2) generalization. With an exception, the student must first highlight the main thing, and then remove the details. When generalizing, he combines several essential facts into a single whole, using language means of generalization. It is not necessary to preserve the style features of the author's text in a concise presentation.

EXAMPLE 2 (variant of the trial certification work in 2008)

Source text

Waking up at dawn to the quacking of ducks, one day I got out of the tent and looked around. But then I had to sit down and crawl back behind the binoculars: a large flock of pelicans swam about a hundred meters from the island. It is not often possible to observe these rare birds in nature.

For the first time I see such a huge flock of pelicans, there are at least a hundred birds in it. Looking closely, I understand that a flock of curly pelicans and pink pelicans feeds on the water. The curly pelican is slightly larger than the pink one, its “mane” is clearly visible - elongated and curled feathers on the head, and the plumage does not have a pink tint characteristic of its fellow. Cormorants swim around the pelicans, and gulls rush in the air with a cry. Cormorants rush after the fish, diving rapidly, and pelicans grab it, plunging only the head, neck and front of the body into the water. Only splashes of water and the cries of seagulls are heard.

But now the hunt is over, the birds are heading for the sandy shore, heavily slapping their webbed paws, and get out onto land. On the ground they move clumsily, waddling. And suddenly one pelican rises into the air. Alarmed by something, he simultaneously pushes off with both paws from the water and, flapping his wings heavily, flies away from the island. Sitting on the shore, the birds immediately follow his example. After a few seconds, all the birds were in the air. They randomly circle over the lake, then build in one wavy line and, having made two large circles with the whole flock, fly away to the east, to the sun.

I have seen all this for a long time. Today, pelicans have become much smaller, their numbers continue to fall catastrophically, it is not for nothing that they are listed in the Red Book. The reason is in the mowing and burning of reed beds, in the disturbance that a person causes during the nesting of birds.

How can we help pelicans? With their intolerant attitude towards poaching, understanding of their responsibility for the existence of rare birds on the planet. And one more thing - human delicacy: you just need to protect the nesting places of pelicans and not disturb the birds, especially at the most difficult time for them - when laying eggs, incubating and hatching chicks.

(Po) (311 words)

The first statement We must help our feathered friends!

Waking up at dawn to the quacking of ducks, I got out of the tent, but immediately returned on all fours for binoculars. A large flock of pelicans swam near the island. These birds are rarely found in nature.

For the first time I see such a large flock of pelicans, in which at least a hundred birds have gathered. Looking closer, I noticed that the flock consisted of curly and pink pelicans. Unlike their cousins, Dalmatian pelicans have a "mane" of long, curling feathers and no pink tinge to their plumage. Cormorants swam alongside the pelicans and seagulls flew. When catching fish, cormorants dived completely, and pelicans immersed only their head, neck and front part of the body in the water. From time to time, the lapping of waves and the cries of seagulls were heard.

The hunt has come to an end. Birds began to get out on land. One pelican, frightened by something, pushing off the water with both paws, soared into the sky. The rest of the birds followed suit. A flock of birds lined up in one wavy line and, having made two large circles, flew east, towards the sun.

The events I have described happened a long time ago. Currently, the number of pelicans is sharply declining. No wonder these birds are listed in the Red Book. The reduction in the population is due to the beveling and burning of reed beds.

We can help our feathered friends if we take care of them.

Even with the naked eye it is clear that the student did not cope with his task - to write a concise presentation: instead of a concise one, he got a detailed presentation. This is evidenced, in particular, by the number of words in the presentation - 199 words, or 64% of the transmission of the content of the original text. This is just a parameter that characterizes a detailed presentation.

How to evaluate such work? If you follow the developed criteria base, it turns out that you can put a lot of points for it. “The examinee conveyed the main content of the text he listened to, reflecting ... all the micro-themes that are important for his perception” (3 points); “used one or more text compression techniques” - in the presentation, albeit clumsily, one such technique was actually used - in the last paragraph (another 1 point); in the work "there are no logical errors and there are no violations of paragraph articulation of the text" (2 points). So, if you formally follow the criteria, then for the content you can put the maximum number of points - 6. (Marked (underlined) speech, mainly stylistic, errors are taken into account on a different scale - "for literacy".)

Another thing is that such a presentation cannot be considered concise. The student did not demonstrate the ability to highlight the main thing in the text, to select essential information, to find language means of generalization. And it is precisely from these positions that a concise presentation should be evaluated in the first place. So the criteria are criteria, and for this work, most teachers would not give more than a three.

Statement two

Pelicans are rare birds

"Waking up at dawn to the quacking of ducks, I took the binoculars.

For the first time I saw a huge flock of curly and pink pelicans. They fed in the water and fished. Curly ones are slightly larger than pink ones. They have a clearly visible "mane" - curled feathers on the head, and there is no pink tint in the plumage. Pelicans, plunging their head, neck and front part of the body into the water, caught fish.

On the ground, birds move clumsily. One pelican took to the air, and the others took off as well. Lined up in a wavy line, the birds flew east.

The number of pelicans is rapidly falling. They are listed in the Red Book. The reason for the decline in the number of pelicans is the mowing and burning of reed beds, which serve as their nests.

How to help the pelicans? Be aware of the responsibility for the existence of rare birds, protect the nesting sites of pelicans and not disturb them during the laying of eggs and the hatching of chicks.

(124 words)

What is the main disadvantage of this work? In the absence of semantic integrity and speech coherence of the narrative. The student obviously believes that he should write exactly a short summary (and thus makes a common mistake, perceiving the words short and short as synonyms), but he does not know what to abbreviate, does not know how to compress the text. Where it is necessary to convey essential information, he excludes it (in this sense, the 1st paragraph is typical: it is not clear for what purpose the camera was taken and what happened at all), and where it is necessary to exclude details, for example, the description of two species of pelicans in 2nd paragraph, he diligently preserves these details. (In the text of the presentation, details that should be excluded are in light italics.)

We note another typical mistake - the lack of a logical connection between the two parts of the text, which is carried out with the help of a sentence. The events that I have described happened quite a long time ago. Without it, the text loses its integrity, the story of a long-standing meeting with pelicans (the first three paragraphs) and the discussion about their preservation today (4th and 5th paragraphs) are torn apart, it seems that we have two different texts. The restoration of the missing semantic link makes the text more understandable. The logic of the development of thought here is as follows: once upon a time you could see a flock of pelicans, consisting of a hundred birds, but now they have become much smaller and they need protection.

In general, the presentation is weak, however, it has one small plus: the not very clear phrase The reason for mowing and burning reed beds is supplemented by adnexal ones that serve as nests for them. This information is not explicitly expressed in the source text (the so-called semantic well), but the student brings this information to the surface, which indicates his understanding of this sentence.

Presentation three

rare birds

Waking up at dawn, I left the tent and looked around. But then I had to crawl back to get the binoculars. A flock of pelicans swam a hundred meters from the shore. [Paragraph missing.] This is the first time I've seen such a large flock. Looking closely, I understand that it is a flock of curly and pink pelicans feeding.

[Paragraph not needed.] Cormorants swim around the pelicans. They rush after the fish, and the pelicans quickly dive and grab it. [Actual error.]

Here the hunt is over. Birds are heading for the shore, heavily slapping their paws. One pelican rises into the air. Sitting on the shore, the birds follow his example. Soon the whole flock was in the air and flew east, towards the sun.

These days, their [speech error] numbers are declining. Therefore, they are listed in the Red Book. The reason is in pumping out Lexical error] and burning reed beds, in the disturbance caused by man during the nesting of birds. [Paragraph missing.] How can we help the birds?

[The paragraph is not needed.] The main thing is to protect their nesting sites, not to disturb them during incubation and hatching.

Using this work as an example, one can clearly show ninth-graders such a common logical error as a violation of paragraph articulation of the text. One gets the impression that, having written the presentation, the student at the end arranged the paragraphs simply at random, he has no idea about the logic of the presentation.

You can prevent this logical error by introducing students to the rules for constructing a paragraph:

In one paragraph, as a rule, only one micro-topic is stated.

The arrangement of sentences within a paragraph is subject to the scheme: beginning, development of thought, ending.

The most important sentence of a paragraph (the sentence that expresses its topic or main idea) is usually placed at the beginning or end of the paragraph.

The development of thought in a paragraph is carried out in one of the following ways: detailing, giving examples, comparison or opposition, analogy, explanation, substantiation of the thesis, etc. 5]

We will invite students to independently compile a table for the text about pelicans reflecting the content of micro-themes (similar to the one given in the instructions for experts). In a teaching presentation, such work is absolutely necessary, although it cannot be called easy. To isolate micro-themes means to reduce a part of the text to one or two sentences, when “each part of the text is represented by some kind of “semantic point”, “semantic point”, in which the entire content of the part seems to be compressed”6.

Here is an example of such work done by one of the students.

paragraph number	microtheme
	One morning I saw a large flock of pelicans
	The flock consisted of curly and pink pelicans that hunted for fish
	After the hunt, the pelicans got out on land. Suddenly one pelican took off, the rest flew after him.
	All this was a long time ago. Today, pelicans are becoming less and less due to human intervention in their lives.
	Pelicans can be helped, but for this it is necessary that a person realizes his responsibility for the preservation of these rare birds on earth.

So, the most typical content errors when writing a concise presentation are the omission of one or more microtopics, the lack of text compression techniques, and logical errors.

When analyzing and evaluating the presentations, the main attention was paid to the content side. As observations and experience (including my own) show, it is this part of the work that causes the greatest difficulties and doubts among teachers. When checking ordinary statements, statements not designed for someone else's eyes, written not for an expert, we, often without realizing it ourselves, first of all begin to count speech, grammatical, spelling and other errors - those that are easier to account for and count. Content errors are more difficult. However, they are the litmus test for understanding the text - a skill that, unfortunately, only a few students possess.

Productive communication skills: 1. Structured perception of the text. 2. The ability to highlight micro-themes. 3. Highlight the main thing, cut off the secondary. The purpose of the work is the informational processing of the text, the selection of lexical and grammatical means for the transmission of brief information.

Students' mistakes 1. Inability to recognize words and expressions in the text that mark the key points of the content. 2. Tendency towards a complete presentation that does not require an analysis of the content of the original text. 3. Skipping micro-themes or expanding the information of the source text - the lack of adequacy of listening to the text.

Concise text Let's think about how often we get upset that we don't understand someone? Or maybe we suffer much more often from the fact that they do not understand us? Of course, the latter is more common. When they do not understand us, we are offended. We are upset that we are not understood by parents, teachers, classmates. We worry to tears that we are not understood by those who we like, whom we respect. We are sure that we ourselves are able to understand, and we understand all of them, but here they are ... But as long as we are confident in that, as long as we judge ourselves less strictly than others, misunderstanding is born. Maybe we should start with ourselves, with what we ourselves lack? Perhaps this is the first step towards understanding? Do we have enough imagination, for example? After all, imagination, according to the exact remark of one of the writers, is not needed at all in order to come up with something non-existent or unrealizable. Imagination is needed in order to capture the hidden corners of the human soul with the mind's eye. Without imagination there is no image of the world and no image of man. And without these images, life becomes flat and simplified, in it we are surrounded only by models and schemes, and not by living people. But in order to understand a person, imagination alone is not enough, you also need close attention to people, the desire to peer, listen with benevolent sympathy, with heartfelt participation. We need compassion that encourages us to listen not only to words, but also to intonation, to peer not only into the obvious, but also into the imperceptible. With such an attitude, the difference of views and feelings never turns into misunderstanding. (Based on materials from Internet sites)

Micro-themes of the text: 1. We often worry because they do not understand us, but we are sure that we ourselves understand those around us. 2. Perhaps misunderstanding is born from the fact that we judge ourselves less strictly than others, and do not notice that we ourselves lack something. 3. The role of imagination in understanding the world and man. 4. To understand a person, apart from imagination, attention and compassion are needed.

SG 1 - 3 points “We rarely get upset that we did not understand someone, but we often worry that we were not understood. We always think that we can understand others, but they do not understand us. Or maybe that's why misunderstanding is born, that everyone judges himself less strictly than others? Perhaps the first step to understanding is to think about what we ourselves lack. For example, do we have enough imagination, which is needed just to understand all the richness and diversity of human life and soul? After all, without imagination there is no image of the surrounding world. And without it, life becomes flat, and people become sketchy. But imagination alone is not enough to understand. We need more attention and compassion for people. Then understanding is possible even if people have different views.” (116 words)

SG1 - 3 points “Often we are frustrated by misunderstanding on the part of relatives, friends, acquaintances: it seems to us that we perfectly understand others, while others do not understand us. This is natural, since a person rarely thinks about the reasons for his misunderstanding, looking for a problem in someone else. Wouldn't it be better to start with ourselves, by thinking about what we ourselves lack? One of the most important criteria for mutual understanding is imagination - not the one that gives rise to the non-existent and unrealizable in thoughts, but the one that allows you to embrace with your mind and heart all the richness of feelings and emotions, all the richness of life, its joys and tragedies ... "

SG1 - 2 points “But not only imagination helps us understand another person. You also need close attention, compassion, the desire to peer, listen, notice not only words, but also intonations, peer not only into the obvious, but also into the imperceptible. And then the difference of views and feelings will never grow into misunderstanding. Only by knowing yourself, and then those around you, you can reflect on mutual understanding, look for the causes of problems in relationships and solve these problems.

SG1 -1 point “People often do not understand each other. We get upset that we are not understood. But that's because we lack imagination. And imagination is not only that which is connected with fantasy. Imagination helps to imagine the image of a person, to look into his soul, into the most hidden corners. Without imagination, it is impossible to create an image of the world and a person, everything will turn out to be similar to a diagram. But imagination alone is not enough to create an image of a person and understand him. You also need to treat him carefully and with sympathy. Then there will be no misunderstanding." (79 words)

SG1 -0 points “Very often we ask the question: “Do they understand us?” The answer is usually no. And sometimes it hurts to tears because even our closest friends do not understand us. But doesn't the reason for this lie within us, in the belief that we understand, trying to understand others? Probably, before blaming others, you need to look into yourself, figure out how I feel about others. But most of all, we need attention to people, participation in their problems, compassion for their grief. It is necessary not only to understand the meaning of words, but also to feel the mood, emotions of a person. If a person understands himself, then he will be understood by others. (113 words)

SG1 - 0 points The first micro-theme is reflected only partially, an important thought is missed: "We are sure that we ourselves understand others." The second micro-theme is replaced by another one; speaking of imagination, the author does not reveal that function, which is emphasized in the original text as the most important: imagination is necessary for understanding the world and man. Having missed 3 microthemes, the author adds a microtheme that does not exist in the source text (the last sentence of the presentation)

IC2 -1 point The examinee used 1 or several methods of text compression (meaningful, linguistic). “People often don't understand each other. We get upset that we are not understood. But that's because we lack imagination. And imagination is not only that which is connected with fantasy. Imagination helps to imagine the image of a person, to look into his soul, into the most hidden corners. Without imagination, it is impossible to create an image of the world and a person, everything will turn out to be similar to a diagram. But imagination alone is not enough to create an image of a person and understand him. You also need to treat him carefully and with sympathy. Then there will be no misunderstanding." (79 words)

2. Replacing part of the sentence with a definitive pronoun with a generalizing meaning (“everything”), eliminating repetitions and simultaneously merging two sentences into one (“Without imagination, there is no image of the world and the image of a person. And without these images, life becomes flat and simplified, we are surrounded by just models and diagrams, not living people" - "Without imagination, you cannot create an image of the world and a person, everything will turn out to be similar to a diagram"). Compression methods - language tools

Compression techniques 1). Exclusion of secondary information (meaningful reception); 2). Merging two sentences into one (“We rarely get upset that we didn’t understand someone, but we often worry that they didn’t understand us”); 3). Exclusion of a fragment of a sentence, different types of substitutions (“We always think that we can understand others, but they don’t understand us”).

SG2 - 0 points “Misunderstanding between people is born imperceptibly. Many people think that they understand their close friends well. And their friends don't really understand them. Often in life there is a second example. When parents, teachers, classmates do not understand us, we are upset. And if we are not understood by those people whom we like and whom we respect, then we are upset to tears.”

Summary Let's think about how often we get upset that we don't understand someone? Or maybe we suffer much more often from the fact that they do not understand us? Of course, the latter is more common. When they do not understand us, we are offended. We are upset that we are not understood by parents, teachers, classmates. We worry to tears that we are not understood by those who we like, whom we respect. We are sure that we ourselves are able to understand, and we understand all of them in us, but here they are ...

A Concise Statement Do we, for example, have enough imagination? After all, imagination, according to the exact remark of one of the writers, is not needed at all in order to come up with something non-existent or unrealizable. Imagination is needed in order to embrace with the mind and heart all the richness of life, its situations, its turns, in order to see with the mind's eye the hidden corners of the human soul. Without imagination there is no image of the world and no image of man. And without these images, life becomes flat and simplified, in it we are surrounded only by models and schemes, and not by living people.

Concise presentation But in order to understand a person, imagination alone is not enough, you also need close attention to people, the desire to peer, listen with benevolent sympathy, with heartfelt participation. We need compassion that awakens us to listen not only to words, but also to intonation, to peer not only into the obvious, but also into the imperceptible. With such an attitude, the difference of views and feelings never turns into misunderstanding.

Preparing students for performance
text tasks in the final certification
in Russian in grades 9-11

authors: N.A. Borisenko, A.G. Narushevich, N.A. Shapiro

Academic plan

newspaper number	Title of the lecture
17	Lecture number 1. Types of final certification in the Russian language in the 9th, 11th grades. General methodological approaches to working with text in USE assignments. Regulatory documents for the exam
18	Lecture number 2.Modern approaches to writing a presentation. Basic requirements for presentation. Types of presentations. Understanding and memorizing text based on recreative imagination
19	Lecture #3 . Detailed and concise presentation. Analysis of microthemes. Ways to compress text. The technology of writing an essay based on the text of the presentation
20	Lecture number 4. Evaluation of presentation. Evaluation criteria. Types of errors. Analysis of students' written work Test No. 1
21	Lecture number 5.Requirements for the content of part C on the Unified State Examination in the Russian language. Ways to identify the problem of the text and the author's position. Commenting as analytical and synthetic work with text
22	Lecture #6 . Ways of argumentation. Argumentation of one's own opinion: logical, psychological and illustrative arguments. Analysis of student work. Composition work. The main types of introductory and final parts Test No. 2
23	Lecture No. 7 . General principles of writing essays. Topic analysis. The composition of the essay. Checking and editing. Exam Time Distribution
24	Lecture No. 8 . Varieties of essays on a literary theme. Analysis of poetry and prose. Analysis of an excerpt from the work. Essay on a problematic topic Final work

LECTURE #2
Modern approaches to writing a presentation.

Basic requirements for presentation. Types of presentations.
Comprehension and memorization of text based
recreating imagination

Presentation - one of the traditional types of written work at school - has been experiencing a real boom in recent years. It has become the most common form of the final exam. Suffice it to say that in all three versions of the final certification in the 9th grade, the presentation is the first part of the examination paper.

According to the secondary school program, students write presentations from the 1st grade, so this type of work is familiar to both ninth graders and teachers. However, with the seeming ease of the exam, many students fail due to a fundamentally incorrect setting for presentation: “I listened twice, memorized and wrote it down. The main thing is no mistakes.

But, before starting a detailed discussion about presentation, we suggest that you answer a few questions that inevitably arise before every teacher if he is not satisfied with the established practice of teaching presentation.

1. What is more difficult for your students: presentation or composition?

2. Why is the presentation being written? What skills do we develop by teaching children to reproduce someone else's text?

3. Which texts are “suitable” for presentation, and which are not? What is a good text to present?

Presentation: a student's perspective

It is even better if these questions are answered not by the teacher, but by the students themselves. Therefore, at the beginning of the school year, we will offer the class a small questionnaire that allows us to freely express our attitude towards the presentation.

Questionnaire for students, or Seven questions about presentation

1. Do you enjoy writing summaries?

2. What is more difficult for you to write - an essay or a presentation? Explain why.

3. Why do you need to learn how to write summaries? Where is this skill now and later you can come in handy?

4. What texts would you choose to present: about nature, about love for your native country, about outstanding people, about historical events, about school, about problems that worry teenagers, about ...?

5. If it were forbidden to take notes while listening to the text, would it be more difficult for you to write a summary?

6. Which is easier to write - detailed or concise? What does "compress" text mean?

7. What difficulties do you experience when writing a summary?

If you have an average class, then most likely you will receive the same answers as we do.

Only every fifth ninth-grader likes to write a presentation. Most students find this activity very tedious, boring and difficult, especially "if you write a summary every week."

70% of the respondents answered that it is more difficult for them to write an essay than a presentation, since “in a presentation, you just need to retell someone else's text, and an essay requires your own thoughts”; “in the essay you come up with your own, and the presentation is almost dictated, you just need to have time to write it down”, “you don’t have to think in the presentation”. And yet there are also many who have difficulty in reproducing other people's thoughts. Here are excerpts from the questionnaires: “I don’t remember the text well”, “I need an auditory memory on the verge of fantasy, but I have it at zero”, “I’m inattentive, often distracted when I listen to the text”, “I suffer from a lack of logic”, “I don’t understand well what they read”, “I don’t remember the end”, “I have a small vocabulary”, “I don’t know how to express a thought”, “I get confused in endless repetitions”, “I write illiterately”, etc.

The ability to write a presentation, according to ninth-graders, can be useful “when passing the exam”, “when taking notes of lectures at the institute”, “journalists or reporters, if you need to quickly write down what the “star” is talking about, and the recorder will break”, “in the police when to write a protocol. Many generally deny the need for such a skill. However, there are also quite mature judgments: presentation is memory training, and any person needs a good memory.

The prevailing practice of writing a presentation - deliberately slow reading of the source text, often more like dictation, and permission to take notes during the second hearing - has led to the fact that the main task for our students has become the desire to write down as quickly and as much as possible. If the students were deprived of such an opportunity, less than 30% would cope with the presentation. Here is one of the typical answers: “I don’t think I’ll write, I’ve never tried anything like that.” In fact, verbatim writing of the text is no better than ordinary cramming. Memorization without understanding characteristic of children of preschool and primary school age, practically returns ninth graders to childhood.

First of all, the listened text needs to be understood, and only a few graduates have this ability. According to the results of a survey of 200 schools in 76 regions of the country, in which about 170 thousand schoolchildren of the first and tenth grades participated, more than 50% of tenth graders found it difficult to extract meaning from an elementary text, only 30% expressed their opinion in connection with what they read, 90% of high school students do not have a full-fledged understanding the meaning of a literary text.

EXAMPLE 1

Source text

A discovery that was two hundred years too late

Here is one instructive story.

All mathematical rules, except for the most important ones, which he managed to learn when he was a short student at school, he rediscovered for himself.

Many years later. He finished his work and showed it to a math teacher he knew. The teacher studied it for a long time, and when he figured it out, he transferred his work to the university. A few days later, scientists invited the eccentric to their place. They looked at him with admiration and pity. There was something to admire and something to regret. The eccentric has made a great mathematical discovery! So the chairman of the meeting told him. But, alas, two hundred years before him, another mathematician, Isaac Newton, had already made this discovery.

This sad story was told by the writer N. Garin-Mikhailovsky. He called the story about the eccentric "Genius" and made a note to the story that this story was not invented, but actually happened.

Who knows what discoveries this unknown genius could give people, if previously learned about Newton's discovery and would direct his talent to the discovery of what is not yet known to people!

(325 words)
(S. Lvov)

Presentation text

One writer who told the story of a mathematician eccentric correctly titled his story "Genius".

The work does not require comments. And the point here is not in violations of logic or poverty of the language. The problem is much more serious: the text is simply not understood, its main idea is not understood. (“Humanity would recognize a mathematician who made a great discovery as a genius if Newton had not made this discovery two hundred years before him.”) Key words and phrases left out (shortly studied at school, unnecessary work, rediscovered, looked with admiration and pity, has long been known to the world, a sad story). Even such strong signals as a telling title and sentences directly revealing the author's position (they are highlighted in the text) passed by the author of the presentation.

It must be admitted that more than half of the class did not cope with the task of formulating the main idea of the text. Here are statements that testify to a complete misunderstanding of the text.

1. This person all his life achieved everything himself, received an education with his own work. He was a genius and managed to discover the laws of Newton himself.

2. The meaning of this text is to show that there are people who arouse our sympathy and pity.

4. In life, geniuses are strange people, and it is difficult for them to communicate with people, to be in society, so no one recognizes our hero. But I believe that his suffering was not in vain, since this discovery was the goal of his life and he achieved everything that was planned.

5. I think that the main problem of this text is the unwillingness of people to help each other, the unwillingness to accept help and, in general, the problem of relations between people. If a mathematician had listened to others, he would not have lived his life in vain. He could have put his mind to something more useful.

And only in some works the understanding of the read was shown.

2. “Sergey Lvov told us a sad story, or rather, retold it to us. It is a pity for this eccentric, this “unknown genius”, who spent all his strength on the discovery made by Newton two hundred years before him.

In order not to discover what is already open, you need to read a lot, study a lot, communicate with other scientists, and not surround yourself with a “sea of misunderstanding”. This is precisely the main (it must be said, rather trivial) idea of this text.

In a similar situation, the hero of V. Shukshin's story "Stubborn", who took up the invention of a perpetual motion machine, found himself in a similar situation. Of course, nothing came of this, because the creation of a perpetuum mobile, as you know, contradicts the laws of physics. Monya (that is the name of the hero of Shukshin) did not believe this and "all devoted himself to the great inventive task." At the end of the story, the engineer directly addresses the “stubborn” Monet: “You need to study, my friend, then everything will be clear.” Despite all its banality, the advice is actually correct. If this “genius” mathematician had received a good mathematical education (most likely he simply did not have such an opportunity), he would have directed his talent to the discovery of what is not yet known to people.

Presentation as a genre

But first, let's find out the features of presentation as a genre.

Statement- a type of educational work, which is based on the reproduction of the content of someone else's text, the creation of a secondary text. The words exposition and paraphrase are often used interchangeably, but the term paraphrase often refers to the oral form of text reproduction.

The specificity of the presentation follows from its nature as secondary text.

Let's turn to the class with the question: "What should not be confused with the presentation?". Answer: “Of course, with an essay” - will not follow immediately. We asked this “childish” question not by chance. It is necessary once and for all to explain to students that these genres have different tasks and different specifics. In contrast to the essay, which is completely “led” by the author, nothing that is not in the original text should be in the presentation. The appearance in "one's own" text of background knowledge, facts and details not contained in the text is by no means encouraged. On the contrary, any "creativity", fantasizing of this kind is regarded as a factual error and leads to a decrease in points.

Types of presentation

Traditionally, the following types of presentation are distinguished.

1. By the form of speech: oral, written.

2. By volume: detailed, concise.

3. In relation to the content of the source text: complete, selective, presentation with an additional task (add the beginning / end, make inserts, retell the text from 1st–3rd sheets, answer a question, etc.).

4. According to the perception of the source text: the presentation of the read, visually perceived text, the presentation of the text heard, perceived by ear, the presentation of the text, perceived both by ear and visually.

5. According to the purpose of the conduction: training, control.

Requirements for texts

The texts of the presentations do not satisfy not only us, teachers, but also the children: they seem to them monotonous, “pathetic”, incomprehensible, too long (“try to retell the text yourself in 400–450 words, and there are most of them in collections!”). The game called "If I were a writer of texts, I would suggest texts about ..." turned out to be very effective: students named a variety of topics - about school, about problems that worry teenagers, about interesting people, about great discoveries, about technology, sports, music, about relationships between people and even about the future of mankind. "Anyone but the boring ones!"

Why do children name these topics? What is the leader in their choice? Without realizing it themselves, they act according to one criterion - emotional choosing texts that primarily evoke positive emotions.

The question of whether texts from classical works can be offered for presentation is debatable. Many methodologists believe that by conveying the content of an artistically impeccable fragment close to the text, students learn those turns of speech that belong to Lermontov, Gogol, Tolstoy ... During the presentation, the imitation mechanism is turned on, which has a beneficial effect on the child's speech. But what does it mean to "retell in detail" Lermontov or Gogol (for example, the texts "About Pechorin", "About Gogol's Thick and Thin", or "About Sobakevich")? If the passage is not very large, which is not the case for exam texts, it can be memorized almost verbatim with incredible effort. However, in this case, there is no need to talk about any kind of understanding and development of speech. The situation with a detailed presentation of the classics is parodied by the students themselves in the genre of “bad advice”: “... you must replace all the words of the author with your own and at the same time preserve his style” (school No. 57 in Moscow, 7th grade, teacher - S.V. Volkov).

How to present?

At first glance, the question may seem rather strange: the method of conducting the presentation is known to any teacher.

But it is worth abandoning some of the usual schemes and patterns.

Let's talk about the presentation method proposed in our textbooks.

Unlike the traditional method, during the retelling, children note not what they already remember so well, but what they missed listening to text. The new methodology takes into account the psychological mechanisms that operate in the process of text perception - the mechanisms of memorization and understanding. Speaking the text to himself, the student, albeit not immediately, realizes that he did not remember some parts of the text because he did not understand them. At the initial stage of training, one of the students can retell the text. In this case, control over memorization and understanding is carried out from the outside - by other students: they note factual errors, omissions, logical inconsistencies, etc. As a result of such joint activity with the class, gradually even the weakest students learn to retell.

The role of such a mental process as recreating imagination deserves a separate discussion.

Understanding and memorizing text based on recreative imagination

As you know, in psychology there are different types of imagination: creative and recreative. Unlike creative imagination, aimed at creating new images, recreating aimed at creating images that correspond to the verbal description. It is the recreating imagination that permeates the entire educational process; without it, it is impossible to imagine a full-fledged education.

Its role is especially important when reading a literary text. “Of course, this does not apply to all reading. Such reading, which pursues only one goal - to find out “what is said here” and “what will happen next,” writes the famous psychologist B.M. Teplov, - does not require active work of the imagination. But such a reading, when you mentally “see and hear” everything that is being discussed, when you mentally transfer yourself to the depicted situation and “live” in it - such reading is impossible without the most active work of the imagination.

The foregoing can be fully attributed to the writing of the presentation.

EXAMPLE 2

Source text

In autumn the whole house is covered with leaves, and in two small rooms it becomes light, as in a flying garden.

It is especially good in the gazebo on quiet autumn nights, when a leisurely sheer rain rustles in an undertone in the garden.

It smells of rain - a gentle and at the same time pungent smell of moisture, damp garden paths.

(154 words)
(K.Paustovsky)

We specially took for analysis descriptive text. If the text has a dynamic plot, is saturated with dialogues, then when reading it, the imagination, as a rule, turns on involuntarily. With a descriptive text, the situation is different: its full understanding and memorization is impossible without the activity of the imagination, the inclusion of which requires certain volitional efforts.

Here are two examples of detailed presentations on this text. (Due to working conditions, students were not allowed to write down anything during the hearing.)

First presentation

When I stay at home, I mostly spend the night in a gazebo overgrown with wild grapes. In the mornings, I light purple and purple lights on the Christmas tree.

It is especially good in the gazebo when it is raining outside the window. It smells of rain and damp garden paths.”

Statement two

It is especially wonderful in the gazebo, when quiet autumn rain rustles in the garden. A fresh breeze sways the tongue of the candle. A butterfly flies quietly, and, landing on an open book, this gray ball of raw silk leaves silver sparkles on the pages of the book.

At night I feel the quiet music of the rain, the gentle and pungent smell of moisture, wet garden paths.

(142 words)

It is not difficult to guess which of the two presentations the author managed to turn on his imagination while listening to the text. And the point here is not in the completeness of the transfer of content and not in the richness and expressiveness of speech, but in the fact that the second student was able to recreate in visual, concrete-sensual images the pictures described in the text; hear the sound of rain, the sounds made by tits; smell the apples, clean floors...

The first exposition, with the exception of the opening and closing phrases, is a rather incoherent description. It captures the individual details of the overall picture. It is not clear from the text where and when the action takes place. It seems to be about autumn, but suddenly lilacs and a New Year tree appear; tits either sit outside the window, or on the windowsill and at the same time sort through glass balls - the author does not perceive metaphors and comparisons. Thus, it is about misunderstanding text. And this case is far from the only one: out of 28 students who wrote a presentation on this text, comprehension failures were noted in twelve.

Meanwhile, recreating the imagination, in the figurative expression of the outstanding artist and scientist N.K. Roerich, "this is a subjective field of vision, a mental screen", "can be developed to an amazing degree." It is only necessary that the teacher himself realize the need to work in this direction.

Let us describe one of the effective techniques that develop the recreative imagination.

This type of task is called "Turn on your imagination." It is formulated quite simply. : “Imagine that everything you read about, you see on your “mental screen”. Turn it on every time you meet a text". In the future, you can briefly remind about the need to activate the imagination: “Turn on your “mental screen”, “Try to mentally see ...”, “Let your imagination work”, etc.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What are the features of presentation as a genre? Which of them will you consider in your work?

2. How do your students feel about the presentation? Conduct the questionnaire proposed in the lecture in the class or make it up yourself. Tell us about the results of the survey. Do they match the data we received?

3. What are the requirements for the selection of texts for presentation? Find in collections of presentations or select two texts that meet the specified requirements on your own.

4. What is the role of the processes of understanding and memorization in teaching presentation?

Literature

1. Antonova E.S.. Methods of teaching the Russian language: a communicative-activity approach. M.: KNORUS, 2007.

2. Granik G.G., Bondarenko S.M., Kontsevaya L.A.. How to teach to work with a book. M., 1995. S. 145–200.

3. Granik G.G., Borisenko N.A.. The development of recreative imagination in the lessons of the Russian language // Russian language at school. 2006. No. 6. S. 3–10.

4. Granik G.G., Borisenko N.A.. Understanding the text in the lessons of the Russian language and literature // Russian language. 2007. No. 23. S. 23–28.

5. Evgrafova E.M.. Understanding and imagination // Russian language, No. 5/2003. S. 14.

6. Methodology for the development of speech in the lessons of the Russian language / Ed. T.A. Ladyzhenskaya. M.: Education, 1991.

Soboleva O.V.. Understanding the text: why, whom, what and how to teach? // Russian language No. 23/2007. S. 29.

Granik G.G., Borisenko N.A.
pp. 3–10.

Teplov B.M.. Psychological issues of artistic education // Izvestiya APN RSFSR, 1947. Issue. 11. P. 7–26.

For more on recreative imagination, see: Granik G.G., Bondarenko S.M., Kontsevaya L.A.. How to teach to work with a book. M., 1995. S. 145–200; Granik G.G., Borisenko N.A.. The development of recreative imagination in the lessons of the Russian language // Russian language at school. 2006. No. 6.
pp. 3–10.

ON THE. BORISENKO,
Korolyov

(The material is presented in a question-answer form)

1. Were you previously familiar with the methodology for developing recreative imagination? If yes, from what sources? Have you used this methodology or its individual techniques in your lessons?

2. How did the students perceive the new type of task? In what class did you apply the technique? Did you manage to teach students to “turn on the imagination”, write a presentation based on it?

Here are some examples:

Preparation for a detailed presentation in the 5th grade according to the text by G. Snegiryov “The Brave Penguin”.

Preparing for a concise presentation in grade 6 by text

"Collector of Russian words" (about V.I. Dal).

Preparation for a selective presentation in the 7th grade according to the text of M.A. Sholokhov "The Fate of Man".

Preparation for presentation with elements of an essay in grade 7 according to the text of K.G. Paustovsky "Squeaky floorboards".

Preparation for a concise presentation in the 8th grade according to the text from the newspaper "But there was a case."

In the 9th grade, in preparation for an examination summary and an essay on a linguistic topic based on texts (mainly artistic style) of an open bank of tasks on the FIPI website.

In grades 10-11, in preparation for the essay - the reasoning of the Unified State Examination on texts (mainly artistic style) of an open bank of tasks on the FIPI website.

In literature lessons, when compiling the characteristics of the main characters based on the analysis of the most important episodes from the text.

Only the reconstruction in visual, concrete-sensual images of what the student reads, sees, hears, contributes to the full perception of the educational material.

3. Have you and your students experienced any difficulties in their work? What were they connected with?

There were difficulties, of course. Tasks for the development of creative imagination had to be selected taking into account the individual characteristics of students.

SUMMARY TEXT

based on recreative imagination

Baikal.

(According to R.Armeev, 152 words)

1 DREAM AND FANTASY STATEMENT
2 STATEMENT ON GENEROSITY
3 STATEMENT OF GREAT
4 STATEMENT ON THE SEARCH OF HAPPINESS
5 STATEMENT OF ENVY
6 STATEMENT ABOUT THE TEACHER
7 STATEMENT OF FRIENDSHIP
8 BONNIE'S DREAM STATEMENT
9 STATEMENT OF LOVE
10 STATEMENT OF TRUE HAPPINESS

dream statement

A special form of imagination is a dream. Just like creative imagination, a dream is an independent creation of new images, it is a process of imagination aimed at the future and, moreover, the desired future.

It is wrong to understand a dream as the result of a passive, involuntary play of the imagination. There are, of course, such dreams (they are often called "dreams"), but they form only the lowest stage of this form of imagination. At higher levels, the dream becomes an active, voluntary, conscious process. Therefore, the value of a dream is determined mainly by the relationship it has to human activity.

A dream and a flight of fantasy are a powerful impetus to action. When dreaming, a person looks ahead, into the future, and in his dreams he sees, as it were, a program of future activity, its prospects. His desires and aspirations, embodied in the images of a dream, become stronger and more effective. A dream has a completely different character when it appears for a person as a substitute for activity, when a person dreams, instead of acting, when he leaves life in a dream. Such people, when dreaming, do not look ahead, but to the side. They find in dreams the imaginary fulfillment of their desires, and this relieves them of the need to fight for the actual fulfillment of these desires. Such people are called "empty dreamers." (178 words)

Statement on generosity

Generosity is one of the human qualities that we most admire. Whether a child donates their allowance to a disaster or a businessman donates millions to charity, we appreciate such deeds and admire their nobility.

What do we really mean when we talk about generosity? We call a generous person a person who willingly donates a significant part of his wealth to the needs of others, without expecting anything from them in return. To be truly generous is to be attentive to the true needs of others, whether in what form this attention is expressed: in money, deeds, or in emotional support and participation.

Statement of resentment

Resentment is a very serious mental illness, it haunts many, turning their life into continuous torment and suffering. It can be both on the surface of the creature, and hide very deep and be kind of invisible. A person who experiences resentment for a long time eventually becomes physically ill, because the body is unable to withstand such a relentless load, pressure.

A calm, joyful, creative life is impossible if you do not heal from this disease. You will never reach peaks that would bring you a lot of joy, satisfaction, peace, while resentment takes away, hides your life energy. You are weak because you have not forgiven someone and you hold a grudge against someone. You have no strength, no mood, no inspiration - all these subtle vibrations are devoured by the virus of resentment and leave you practically nothing for life itself.

There is a way to get rid of this vice: start and end your day by forgiving everyone who offended you, who deceived you, who acted unfairly towards you. And be sure to wish them well, success, good luck! Send bright mental waves to these people, and if you really wish them well and forgive them, then it’s like a stone will fall from your heart, you will feel so light and calm in your soul that you will want to smile and sing. (192 words)

An essay on happiness

Happiness is a state of mind when everything around gives a person joy. Peace, health, creativity, prosperity and well-being in the family - these are the components of true happiness. Everything else is just a mirage, which sooner or later everyone who chases after them will be convinced of.

Happiness is a special quality of the soul multiplied by good health. Only the person who knows how to understand and see the good in the main manifestations of life, who can invest happiness in every moment of being, is capable of becoming happy. These are just general words, but there is simply no other way, because there is no recipe for happiness suitable for everyone.

Every human being desires to be happy. Every person has the right to happiness from birth. People have been waiting for it for decades, not understanding what happiness is and that it cannot be achieved, because it is given to anyone through the joy of being and is acquired through the realization of this. People naively look for the attributes of happiness, and only at the end of the road, looking back, do they realize that they were truly happy only in years that they did not consider happy. (155 words)

Outline of envy

Some people tend to experience a feeling of bitterness at the sight of someone else's joy and benefits that he does not have ... This feeling is called envy. Envy is a low feeling, because a person hates what should be loved and respected ... Those who envy talent or natural qualities have no hope or consolation left, but only bitter and implacable hatred for the owner of these qualities ...

The envious person carefully hides his feelings, tirelessly inventing cunning tricks and tricks for this. He is a master of pretense. When he notices excellent qualities in others, it corrodes his soul, and he skillfully belittles them, tries to make them insignificant, inconspicuous and not pay attention to them, and at times even forgets about them. He also comes up with all sorts of tricks to prevent the manifestation or recognition in others of any outstanding traits. If they appear, then he subjects them to harsh criticism, sarcasm and slander, like a toad shooting poison from its hiding place. In contrast, he enthusiastically praises the insignificant, mediocre, and often the worst people ...

Envy is absolutely base, it is negative both for the envious person and for the object of his envy. Envy strengthens the wall between "you" and "I", while understanding and sympathy make it thin and transparent, and when the "I" reaches full maturity, this wall disappears ... (207 words)

Teacher essay

A teacher is a person involved in the education and upbringing of students, as a rule, professionally trained. But a teacher is, first of all, a person who voluntarily assumed a high responsibility for the upbringing and education of another person, let him into his consciousness and exercised spiritual guidance for him.

Such a high role of a teacher can be combined with the performance of purely teaching functions at school, or it can be performed voluntarily by a non-school teacher at all, for example, a spiritual father, an older friend, a brother or father. The teacher in this sense is the one who listens to the child, tirelessly watches his growth, provides the necessary freedom, gives the necessary advice, warns against betrayal, superstition and hypocrisy. The teacher must be close to the student, otherwise there is no teaching.

Pedagogy gives the teacher a special role: his impact on the child must be calculated for life, the teacher is simply obliged to teach another with love, trust, humility, but also demanding. Modern pedagogy believes that only a spiritually developed, creative person with the ability to reflect, professional skills, a great pedagogical gift and a desire for something new can be a teacher. The teacher must understand the essence and inherent value of education. A teacher is also a mediator between the general cultural experience of mankind and the new generation. (172 words)

friendship statement

Friends have a huge impact on a person's moral life. It must be understood that many of the friends we love as brothers can become our cruel executioners. In this regard, I want to talk about people who unwittingly harm their friends. Having the best intentions, trying to support a friend in everything, they never criticize him, do not point out mistakes, that a friend is doing badly.

True friendship does not hide behind a mask, since well-meaning hypocrisy leads to the weakening or destruction of those whom we do not want to criticize. A true friend helps us, and does not make unrealistic plans, does not justify failures, does not avoid reality. A true friend wishes you true well and helps you achieve success, even if it means opening your eyes to your shortcomings and inconsistencies, showing you how you really look from the outside. Only in this way will you know yourself and be able to achieve self-realization. Therefore, we must learn to distinguish false friendships from real ones, which would bring real benefits, and not despair and dissatisfaction.

Some people, deceived by a close friend, are disappointed in friendship in general, declaring that "loyalty does not exist, and everything is only profit." Sometimes this is true, but not when a friend condemns us for misbehavior. (192 words)

Bonnie's Dream Statement

Bonnie had a dream. This dream shone in his eyes as an inventor. He dreamed of creating an airplane out of metal, wood and fabric that could soar like a seagull in flight. A plane that, without the muscles and feathers of a seagull, must have had her grace. To do this, Bonnie killed seagulls and studied their lifeless wings to find out their secret. He envied the seagulls.

He built an airplane and prepared to fly. Engineers who had never studied seagulls but who had studied human flight told him he shouldn't do it. They pointed out to him that the center of gravity of his car had moved to the wings, and this was dangerous. But Bonnie was drunk on his dream. His eyes shone with confidence.

He got up safely. It rose into the air like a giant seagull and began its steep ascent. The wise men wondered: was it possible that an ignorant dreamer refuted their arguments? The surprise didn't last long. When Bonnie tried to level off, the nose of the plane dropped and the car crashed into the ground like a seagull diving into the ocean for fish. We immediately rushed to the crash site: Bonnie was already dead. He was surrounded not only by fragments of the wings of his own gull, but also by feathers - the remains of thousands of wings of real gulls. He crashed right into the graveyard of the seagulls he killed ... (183 words)

Statement of love

Love is not only a feeling, but also the ability to love another person, as well as the ability to be loved. It requires effort and diligence, the ultimate goal of which can be expressed in one word - self-improvement, that is, raising oneself to the heights of the dignity of love, to the ability to give it to others. Love is also an art that needs to be learned and in which it is necessary to constantly improve ...

Giving his life force and energy to another being in love, a person shares his joy with him, increasing his own, expanding his understanding of the world, enriching his personal horizons, his experience, knowledge and experiences, which together make up his spiritual wealth. In love, one gives in order to receive and receives in order to give.

Love is the mercy and responsibility of the lover for the beloved being. This is respect for him, and active penetration into him for the purpose of knowledge, but without violating the right to have secrets and remain a person.
A person who deeply and truly loves someone cannot love him alone. His love extends its fertile qualities to other people around him. He who loves, personally enriched by this feeling, gives his excess to other people in the form of kindness and cordiality, responsiveness and humanity. (According to R.S. Nemov)

An essay on happiness

What does a person need to be happy? Psychologists from different countries asked a lot of people about this and received quite expected answers. “I will be happy when… I buy a spacious new house, get married, earn a million, etc., etc.” That is, people talked about what they need to achieve, what to acquire in order to feel happy. Some, however, pointed out that the feeling of mental well-being mainly brings some kind of business - favorite work, hobby, interesting leisure, communication with loved ones. Perhaps both are important. But what is more important?

For several months, American psychologists recorded the state of mind of hundreds of students, comparing it with the various circumstances of their lives - what they were doing, what they managed to achieve, get. And in the end, they established: any positive change in life circumstances (when plans come true, dreams come true) increases mental well-being, but ... not for long!

New, better circumstances of life very quickly become habitual. If a person is busy with some business that brings him satisfaction and joy, then this source of happiness is practically inexhaustible. The conclusion is simple and very instructive: it is impossible to achieve happiness once and for all, but it does not leave those who are engaged in a business to which the soul lies. (According to S.S. Stepanov)

Make a summary! Imagination, the unique ability of our mind, is based primarily on memory. Under the influence of will or spiritual impulse, fragments of Our memories are formed into an amazing, often fantastic mosaic. A moment - and now in front of our inner eye Unfolds a magic carpet of imagination. In order for the movie screen of the imagination to begin its work, it needs a reason. Usually the imagination turns on, starting from one or another detail of the surrounding reality. Not infrequently, the reason that gives rise to the movement of a dream is the most insignificant. “Randomly find a speck of dust from distant countries on a pocket knife - they will appear strange, wrapped in a colored fog.” Yes, yes, often with such dust particles the indomitable work of the imagination begins. Starting from reality, the imagination itself is able to influence it, forming our ideals, dictating our actions. After all, a person who dreams believes in his dream. This belief in a dream is the force that makes a person look for the imaginary in life, fight for its realization, and finally - embody the imaginary.

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1 Types of presentations. Understanding and memorizing the text based on the recreating imagination Types of presentation Traditionally, the following types of presentation are distinguished. In the form of speech: oral, written. By volume: detailed, concise. In relation to the content of the source text: complete, selective, presentation with an additional task (add the beginning / end, make inserts, retell the text from the 1st to the 3rd l., answer the question, etc.). According to the perception of the source text: presentation of the read, visually perceived text, presentation of the heard, perceived by ear text, presentation of the text, perceived both by ear and visually. According to the purpose of conducting: training, control. The features of all these types of presentations are well known to the teacher. We only note that in the 9th grade you should not concentrate both your own efforts and the efforts of students on any one form. In the practice of preparing for the exam, there must be different texts, different presentations and, of course, different types of work, otherwise boredom and monotony - the main enemy of any activity - cannot be avoided. But, since there is very little time for presentation in the senior class (you also need to go through the program), it is best to select small texts for training and train some one specific skill. Requirements for texts Texts of presentations do not satisfy not only us, teachers, but also children: they seem monotonous, “pathetic”, incomprehensible, too long (“try to retell the text in words yourself, and there are most of them in collections!”). The game called "If I were a writer of texts, I would suggest texts about ..." turned out to be very effective: the students named a variety of topics - about school, about problems that worry teenagers, about interesting people, about great discoveries, about technology, sports, music, relationships between people and even the future of humanity. "Anyone but the boring ones!" Why do children name these topics? What is the leader in their choice? Without realizing it themselves, they act according to one criterion - emotional, choosing texts that primarily evoke positive emotions. The selection of non-boring - informative, fascinating, problematic, smart, and sometimes humorous - texts excites and maintains cognitive interest, creates a favorable psychological climate in the classroom. Popular science and some journalistic texts are best suited for this purpose, less often - and only with a specific educational task - fiction. The question of whether texts from classical works can be offered for presentation is debatable. Many methodologists believe that by transmitting the content of an artistically impeccable fragment close to the text, students learn those turns of speech that belong to Lermontov, Gogol, Tolstoy ... During the presentation, the imitation mechanism is turned on, which has a beneficial effect on the child's speech. But what does it mean to "retell in detail" Lermontov or Gogol (for example, the texts "About Pechorin", "About Gogol's Thick and Thin", or "About Sobakevich")? If the passage is not very large, which is not the case for exam texts, it can be memorized almost verbatim with incredible effort. However, in this case, there is no need to talk about any kind of understanding and development of speech. The situation with a detailed exposition of the classics was parodied by the students themselves in the genre of "bad advice": "... you must replace all the words of the author with your own and at the same time preserve his style" How to conduct a presentation? At first glance, the question may seem rather strange: the method of conducting the presentation is known to any teacher. But it is worth abandoning some of the usual schemes and patterns.

2 The teacher reads the text for the first time. Pupils, listening, try to understand and remember the text. After the first reading, they retell the text in order to understand what they did not remember. This work usually takes 5-7 minutes. The teacher reads the text a second time. Pupils pay attention to those places that they missed during the first reading. Then they retell the text again, make the necessary notes on the draft, draw up a plan, formulate the main idea, etc. And only after that write a statement. Unlike the traditional method, during the retelling, children note not what they already remember well, but what they missed while listening to the text. The new methodology takes into account the psychological mechanisms that operate in the process of perceiving the text - the mechanisms of memorization and understanding. Speaking the text to himself, the student, albeit not immediately, realizes that he did not remember some parts of the text because he did not understand them. At the initial stage of training, one of the students can retell the text. In this case, control over memorization and understanding is carried out from the outside by other students: they note factual errors, omissions, logical inconsistencies, etc. As a result of such joint activity with the class, gradually even the weakest students learn to retell. The role of such a mental process as recreating imagination deserves a separate discussion. Understanding and memorizing a text on the basis of recreative imagination As is known, in psychology there are different types of imagination: creative and recreative. Unlike creative imagination, aimed at creating new images, recreating is aimed at creating images that correspond to the verbal description. It is the recreating imagination that permeates the entire educational process; without it, it is impossible to imagine a full-fledged education. Its role is especially important when reading a literary text. “Of course, this does not apply to all reading. Such reading, which pursues only one goal - to find out, "what is being said here and what will happen next," writes the famous psychologist B.M. Teplov, "does not require active work of the imagination. But such a reading, when you mentally" see and hear "everything what we are talking about when you are mentally transferred to the depicted situation and "live" in it - such reading is impossible without the most active work of the imagination. " What has been said can be fully attributed to writing a presentation. The task of the teacher is to text, the student mentally “saw and heard” what he was listening to (reading). To achieve this, of course, is not easy. Recreating imagination in different people and children in particular is not developed to the same degree. tracks.. Detailed and concise presentation Analysis of microthemes. Ways to compress text. Technology for writing an essay based on the text of the presentation Features of a detailed and concise presentation Whatever form of final certification a ninth grader chooses, he will have to write a presentation: a detailed or concise presentation with essay elements (traditional form), detailed (version 2007), concise (version 2008) G.). An analysis of the questionnaires shows that ninth-graders understand quite well the difference between a detailed and a concise presentation. Two-thirds of them believe that retelling close to the text is easier, since "you can rely on memory and the ability to write quickly." Although in the questionnaires there are also arguments, mostly naive, in favor of a concise presentation: “it is easier to write, because you will make fewer mistakes”, “it has less descriptions, all sorts of different details”, “teachers prefer brevity”. "Compress" the text means "to shorten it, but at the same time keep the main idea in each paragraph"; “remove everything superfluous and leave only the main thing, and this is the most difficult thing”; "give up the details." If we compare these statements with what they write about detailed and concise

3 Methodists, it turns out that there are not so many differences. The task of a detailed presentation is to reproduce the original text as fully as possible, preserving its compositional and linguistic features. The task of a concise presentation is to briefly, in a generalized form, convey the content of the text, select essential information, exclude details, and find speech means of generalization. With a concise presentation, it is not necessary to preserve the style features of the author's text, but the main thoughts of the author, the logical sequence of events, the characters of the characters and the situation should be conveyed without distortion. An interesting technique that helps students understand the features of a detailed and concise presentation is offered by the Pskov methodologist F.S. Marat. He compares the original text with a large nesting doll, a detailed presentation with a smaller nesting doll, and a concise presentation with the rest of the nesting dolls. “These last three nesting dolls are a concise presentation of the text. In one case, let's say, we were given three minutes (or 30 lines in a newspaper) for presentation, in another - two minutes (20 lines), in the third - a minute (or 10 lines). And so we got texts of different degrees of compression, compressed presentations, and we all created them on the basis of the original one. Therefore, they are somewhat similar to each other in the most important way, and, of course, to the first, source text. If this explanation is accompanied by an appropriate figure or diagram, students will see that the text can be compressed to varying degrees, but the main and essential from the original text should be preserved in the secondary text. Obviously, not every text is suitable for a compressed presentation, but only one that has something to compress. The amount of text for a concise presentation should be larger than for a detailed one. (For some reason, this criterion is not taken into account by the compilers of the latest version of the examination paper, who offer texts for a concise presentation, in which there are only words. The reaction of students to the task is typical: “Yes, there is nothing to compress here!”; “How to shorten the text, where two hundred words , up to ninety? Leave every second word?".) A condensed presentation is considered the most difficult type of presentation because many students do not know how to highlight the main and other important thoughts, they do not know how to distract from irrelevant information. According to psychologists, a brief retelling is a technique that is inorganic for children's nature. Children gravitate towards unnecessary details. And if they are not specifically taught, the task of retelling the text briefly is absolutely impossible for many. This is also confirmed by experimental data: only 14% of students in grades 8-9 can make such a retelling2. Often the words short and short when applied to retelling are synonymous for schoolchildren: when retelling, the text may become shorter, but at the same time the main thing often disappears, essential information is skipped. The role of this type of presentation can hardly be overestimated. It is in a brief retelling that the degree of understanding of the text is revealed, it is a litmus test of understanding. If the text is not understood or understood partially, a brief retelling will reveal all defects in perception. How to teach students to write a concise statement? What techniques can be used? What is the best material for this? Here are the questions teachers usually ask. Ways and techniques of text compression Concise presentation requires special logical work. There are two main methods of text compression (compression)3: 1) exclusion of details; 2) generalization. With an exception, you must first highlight the main thing, and then remove the details (details). When summarizing the material, we first single out single significant facts (we omit the insignificant ones), combine them into one whole, select the appropriate language means and compose a new text. Which compression method to use in each particular case will depend on the communicative task and the characteristics of the text. The named methods of text compression are not equally mastered by students. Some with difficulty single out the main thing and find the essential, bogged down in countless details; others, on the contrary, compress the text so much that there is nothing left in it

4 is alive and it becomes more like a plan or a diagram. In both cases we are dealing with the difficulties of the process of abstraction. However, like any other ability of human thinking, the ability to abstract is amenable to training. Here are the types of tasks aimed at text compression. Shorten the text by one third (half, three quarters...). Shorten the text by conveying its content in one or two sentences. Remove the unnecessary from your point of view in the text. Compose a “telegram” based on the text, i.e. Highlight and very briefly (after all, every word in a telegram is expensive) formulate the main thing in the text. EXAMPLE 1 Task 1. Listen to the text, write a concise summary, cutting the text in half. Source text In addition to the legends about Hercules, the ancient Greeks also told about two twin brothers - Hercules and Iphicles. Despite the fact that the brothers were very similar from childhood, they grew up different. It's still very early, and the boys are sleepy. Iphicles pulls a blanket over his head in order to watch interesting dreams longer, and Hercules runs to wash himself to a cold stream. Here the brothers are walking along the road and they see: on the way there is a large puddle. Hercules steps back, runs up and jumps over an obstacle, and Iphicles, grumbling with displeasure, is looking for a workaround. The brothers see: a beautiful apple is on a high branch of a tree. “Too high,” Iphicles grumbles. “I don’t really want this apple.” Hercules jumps - and the fruit is in his hands. When the legs get tired and the lips dry up from thirst, and the rest is still far away, Iphicles usually says: "Let's rest here, under the bush." “We'd better run,” Hercules suggests. “That way we’ll get through the road sooner.” Hercules, who at first was an ordinary boy, later becomes a hero, a monster slayer. And all this is only because from childhood he was used to winning daily victories over difficulties, over himself. In this ancient legend, the deepest meaning is hidden: will is the ability to control oneself, this is the ability to overcome obstacles. (From a magazine) (176 words) Condensed text The ancient Greeks have a legend about Hercules and Iphicles. Although they were twins, the brothers grew up different. In the early morning, when Iphicles is still sleeping, Hercules runs to wash himself to a cold stream. Seeing a puddle on the way, Hercules jumps over it, and Iphicles bypasses the obstacle. An apple hangs high on a tree. Iphicles is too lazy to climb after him, and Hercules immediately gets the fruit. When there is no more strength to go, Iphicles offers to make a halt, and Hercules - to run forward. Although Hercules, like Iphicles, was at first an ordinary boy, he became a hero, because from childhood he learned to overcome difficulties, brought up his will. (90 words) Using this simple example, you can show students specific techniques for compressing a text: 1) excluding details, secondary facts (pulls a blanket over his head to watch interesting dreams longer); 2) exclusion of direct speech or translation of direct speech into indirect speech (4th and 5th paragraphs, someone else's speech is conveyed using simple sentences with an addition indicating the topic of speech). When teaching a concise presentation, a certain sequence of actions is observed, which can be written in the form of the following instruction.

5 Instruction "How to write a concise summary" - Highlight the essential (ie important, necessary) thoughts in the text. Find the main idea among them. - Break the text into parts, grouping it around the essential thoughts. -Name each part and make a plan. -Think about what can be excluded in each part, what details to refuse. -What facts (examples, cases) can be combined, summarized in adjacent parts of the text? -Consider the means of communication between the parts. - Translate the selected information into "your" language. -Write down this abbreviated, "wrung out" text on a draft. “Just a presentation”, starting from about the 8th grade, students are no longer interested in writing. But the presentation, complicated by additional tasks aimed at highlighting the main idea, working with the title, creative processing of the text, etc., students write with much greater interest, since it allows, firstly, to better understand the text, and secondly secondly, to include the knowledge obtained from the text into an already existing system of knowledge, to demonstrate one's erudition, to show creative abilities. With this approach, the presentation in the 9th grade can be considered as a certain stage of preparation for the exam (writing part C) in the 11th grade. Retelling the text (first of all, briefly), the student is already doing serious work to comprehend its content, a correctly “wrung out” text is the basis for writing an essay. I will give several types of tasks, according to the model of which you can make tasks for a variety of texts. Each group of tasks aims to train a certain method of working with text. I. Tasks aimed at the ability to predict the content of the text. 1. Read the title and try to guess what (whom) the text will be about. After listening to the text, check your guesses. Examples of headings: "The discovery, which was two hundred years late", "A sad collection", "Fifteen Louis Fifteenth" - the names of S. Lvov's texts; "Man from the Moon" (about Miklouho-Maclay), "Raphael of Violin Mastery" (about Stradivarius). 2. Listen or read the beginning of the text (first sentence, first paragraph) on which you will write the presentation, and try to guess what will be discussed next (what events will follow, what thoughts will be expressed ...). Example The characters in Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland, the Hatter and the March Hare, are known to have been incessantly busy drinking tea. When the dishes became dirty, they did not wash them, but simply moved to another place. “What will happen when you reach the end? Alice dared to ask. - Is it time for us to change the subject? - suggested the March Hare "... (Continuation of the text: "This dialogue is given in one of his books by the founder of cybernetics, the American scientist Norbert Wiener, speaking about the use of nature by man, the limited nature of its resources ..." The text is taken from the "Encyclopedia for Children" (volume "Biology") and is devoted to the problems of ecology.) (83 words) Evaluation of presentation Evaluation criteria. 1. Evaluation of a detailed presentation Checking the presentations - despite the familiarity of this work - causes serious difficulties for many philologists. The greatest difficulties are associated with the evaluation of the content of the work. And although the criteria for evaluating the presentation are developed in great detail, this does not eliminate the problem of subjectivity when checking the written work of students: the same presentation (and not just an essay!), Checked by different teachers, is evaluated by them differently - from 5 to 3.

6 The current practice of evaluating presentations is complicated by the fact that the teacher evaluates ordinary presentations according to one system - traditional1, and examination (new forms of certification) - according to another, to which he is not used psychologically2. If we compare the old criteria with the new ones, it turns out that they have basically remained the same. The content of a detailed presentation is evaluated in terms of: 1) the accuracy of the transmission of the original text and the presence of factual errors (from 3 to 0 points); 2) semantic integrity, speech coherence and sequence of presentation (1-0 points); 3) accuracy and clarity of speech (2-0 points).

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1. Theoretical part

1.1 Brief description of the imagination

1.2 Imagination, its essence, forms of expression of imagination, forms of synthesis of ideas in the process of imagination

1.3 Types of imagination

1.4 Development of the imagination, conditions for the development of the imagination

1.5 Imagination, expression, bodily dialogue

2. Practical part

2.1 Who has a richer imagination: an adult or a child

2.2 Test to determine the level of development of the child

2.3 Solving imaginative problems

2.4 Tests for the study of the development of the imagination

1. Theoretical part

1.1 Brief description of the imagination

Imagination- the mental process of creating an image of an object or situation by restructuring existing ideas. Imagination has objective reality as its source. And in turn, the products of the imagination find an objective material expression. It is associated with the characteristics of the individual, her interests, knowledge and skills.

The physiological basis of imagination is the formation of new combinations from temporary connections that have already been formed in past experience.

Imagination functions

Representing activities in images and making it possible to use them in solving problems;

Regulation of emotional relationships;

Arbitrary regulation of cognitive processes and human states;

Formation of the inner plan of a person;

Planning and programming of human activity.

Forms of Expression of the Imagination

1. Building an image, means and the final result of the activity.

2. Creating a program of behavior in an uncertain situation.

3. Creation of images corresponding to the description of the object, etc.

Forms of synthesis of representations in the processes of imagination

Agglutination is a combination of qualities, properties, parts of objects that are not connected in reality;

Hyperbolization or emphasis - an increase or decrease in an object, a change in the quality of its parts;

Sharpening - emphasizing any signs of objects;

Schematization - smoothing out the differences between objects and identifying similarities between them;

Typification is the selection of the essential, recurring in homogeneous phenomena and its embodiment in a specific image.

Types of imagination

1. Active imagination is controlled by the will. images passive Imaginations arise spontaneously, apart from human desire.

2. Recreating imagination- a representation of something new for a given person, based on a verbal description or a conditional image of this new one. Creative- imagination, giving new, original, created images for the first time. The source of creativity is the social need for a particular new product. It also determines the emergence of a creative idea, a creative idea, which leads to the emergence of a new one.

3. Fantasy- a kind of imagination, giving images that do not correspond to reality. However, images of fantasy are never completely divorced from reality. It has been noted that if any product of fantasy is decomposed into its constituent elements, then among them it will be difficult to find something that does not really exist. dreams- a fantasy associated with desire, most often a somewhat idealized future. Dream differs from a dream in that it is more realistic and more connected with reality. dreams- passive and involuntary forms of imagination, in which many vital human needs are expressed. hallucinations- fantastic visions, as a rule, the result of mental disorders or disease states.

1.2 Imagination, its essence, forms of expression of imagination, forms of synthesis of representations in the process of imagination

Everyone knows what imagination is. We very often say to each other: “Imagine such a situation...”, “Imagine that you...” or “Well, come up with something!” So, in order to do all this - "represent", "imagine", "invent" - we need imagination. Only a few touches need to be added to this laconic definition of "imagination".

A person can imagine what he has never perceived before, what he has never encountered in life, or what else will be created in a more or less distant future. Such cities of representation are called representations of the imagination or mere imagination.

Imagination- cognitive higher process, psychological activity, consisting in the creation of ideas and mental situations that are never generally perceived by a person in reality.

The imagination reflects the outside world in a peculiar and unique way, it allows you to program not only future behavior, but also to imagine the possible conditions under which this behavior will be carried out.

Imagination is not the ability to fantasize without a goal, but the intuitive ability to see the essence of parameters - their natural logic. It combines images of what does not yet exist from the materials of memory and feelings, creates an image of the unknown as known, that is, creates its subject content and meaning, considers them real. Therefore, imagination is the self-movement of sensory and semantic reflections, and mechanism imagination unites them into integrity, synthesizes feelings into thought, as a result of which a new image or judgment is created about the unknown as about the known. And all this does not take place materially - mentally, when a person acts without practically working.

A person's imagination is his ability to look ahead and consider a new object in its future state.

Therefore, the past at every moment of a person's life must exist in accordance with one or another purposefulness into the future. If memory claims to be active and effective, and not just a repository of experience, it must always be directed to the future, to the form of the future self, one's abilities and what a person seeks to achieve. Such an imagination always works: a person transforms objects and raw materials not simply by imagination, but really with the help of imagination, paving the way to the desired object. Of great importance in activating the work of the imagination is astonishment. Surprise, in turn, causes:

¨  novelty of perceived “something”;

¨  awareness of it as something unknown, interesting;

¨  the impulse that sets the quality of imagination and thinking in advance, attracts attention, captures feelings and the whole person.

Imagination, together with intuition, is able not only to create an image of a future object or thing, but also to find its natural measure - a state of perfect harmony - the logic of its structure. It gives rise to the ability to discover, helps to find new ways of developing engineering and technology, ways to solve problems and problems that arise before a person.

The initial forms of imagination first appear at the end of early childhood in connection with the emergence of the role-playing game and the development of the sign-symbolic function of consciousness. The child learns to replace real objects and situations with imaginary ones, to build new images from existing ideas. Further development of the imagination goes in several directions.

Þ Along the line of expanding the range of replaceable items and improving the operation of substitution itself, linking with the development of logical thinking.

Þ Along the line of improving the operations of the recreating imagination. The child gradually begins to create more and more complex images and their systems based on the available descriptions, texts, fairy tales. The content of these images is developed and enriched. A personal attitude is introduced into the images, they are characterized by brightness, saturation, emotionality.

Þ Creative imagination develops when a child not only understands some expressive techniques, but also applies them independently.

Þ Imagination becomes mediated and deliberate. The child begins to create images in accordance with the goal and certain requirements, according to a pre-proposed plan, to control the degree of compliance of the result with the task.

Imagination is expressed:

1. In constructing the image of the means and the final result of the objective activity of the subject.

2. In creating a program of behavior when the problem situation is uncertain.

3. In the production of images that are not programmed, but replace activities.

4. Creation of images corresponding to the description of the object.

The most important meaning of imagination is that it allows presenting the result of labor before it begins (for example, a finished table as a finished product), thereby orienting a person in the process of activity. The creation, with the help of imagination, of a model of the final or intermediate product of labor (those parts that must be sequentially made in order to assemble the table) contributes to its substantive embodiment.

The essence of imagination, if we talk about its mechanisms, is the transformation of ideas, the creation of new images, based on existing ones. Imagination is a reflection of reality in new, unusual, unexpected combinations and connections.

Imagination representations are of 4 types:

Representations of what exists in reality, but which a person did not perceive before;

Representations of the historical past;

Representations of what will be in the future and what has never been in reality.

No matter how new what is created by the human imagination, it inevitably proceeds from what exists in reality, relies on it. Therefore, imagination, like the whole psyche, is a reflection of the surrounding world by the brain, but only a reflection of what a person has not perceived, a reflection of what will become a reality in the future.

Physiologically, the process of imagination is a process of formation of new combinations and combinations from already established temporary nerve connections in the cerebral cortex.

The process of imagination always proceeds in close connection with two other mental processes - memory and thinking. Just like thinking, imagination arises in a problem situation, that is, in those cases when it is necessary to find new solutions; just like thinking, it is motivated by the needs of the individual. The real process of satisfaction of needs may be preceded by an illusory, imaginary satisfaction of needs, that is, a vivid, vivid representation of the situation in which these needs can be satisfied. But the anticipatory reflection of reality, carried out in the processes of fantasy, occurs in a concrete form. Imagination works at that stage of cognition, when the uncertainty of the situation is very high. The more familiar, precise and definite the situation is, the less space it gives to fantasy. However, with very approximate information about the situation, on the contrary, it is difficult to get an answer with the help of thinking - fantasy comes into play here. Speaking of imagination, we only emphasize the predominant direction of mental activity. If a person is faced with the task of reproducing representations of things and events that were earlier in his experience, we are talking about memory processes. But if the same representations are reproduced in order to create a new combination of these representations or to create new representations from them, we speak of the activity of the imagination.

The activity of the imagination is most closely connected with the emotional experiences of a person. Imagining the desired can cause positive feelings in a person, and in certain situations, a dream of a happy future can lead a person out of extremely negative states, allows him to distract himself from the situations of the present moment, analyze what is happening and rethink the significance of the situation for the future. Therefore, imagination plays a very significant role in the regulation of our behavior.

Imagination is also connected with the realization of our volitional actions. Thus, imagination is present in any kind of our work activity, because before we create something, it is necessary to have ideas about what we create.

Imagination, due to the peculiarities of the systems responsible for it, is to a certain extent connected with the regulation of organic processes and movement. Imagination influences many organic processes: the functioning of the glands, the activity of internal organs, metabolism, etc. For example: the idea of a delicious dinner causes us to profuse salivation, and by instilling in a person the idea of a burn, you can cause real signs of a “burn” on the skin.

It can be concluded that imagination plays a significant role both in the regulation of the processes of the human body and in the regulation of its motivated behavior.

The main trend of the imagination is the transformation of representations (images), which ultimately ensures the creation of a model of a situation that is obviously new, that has not arisen before.

Any new image, new idea correlates with reality and, in case of inconsistency, is discarded as false or corrected.

The synthesis of representations in the processes of imagination is carried out in various forms:

- agglutination - connection (“gluing”) of various qualities, properties, parts of objects that are not connected in reality, the result can be a very bizarre image, sometimes far from reality, many fabulous images are built by agglutination (a mermaid, a hut on chicken legs, etc.), she used in technical creativity (for example, an accordion - a combination of piano and button accordion);

- hyperbolization or accentuation - a paradoxical increase or decrease in an object (a boy with a finger, Gulliver), a change in the number of its parts, any detail or part of the whole stands out and becomes dominant, bearing the main load (dragons with seven heads, etc.);

- sharpening - emphasizing any signs of objects, with the help of this technique, cartoons and evil caricatures are created;

- schematization - smoothing out differences between objects and identifying similarities between them, for example, the creation by an artist of an ornament, the elements of which are taken from the plant world;

-typing - highlighting the essential, recurring in homogeneous phenomena and embodying it in a specific image, bordering on the creative process, is widely used in fiction, sculpture, and painting.

1.3 Types of imagination

The simplest form of imagination is those images that arise without special intention and effort on our part.

Any fascinating, interesting teaching usually evokes a vivid involuntary imagination. An extreme case of arbitrary work of the imagination are dreams, in which images are born unintentionally and in the most unexpected and bizarre combinations. At its core, the activity of the imagination is also involuntary, unfolding in a half-asleep, drowsy state, for example, before falling asleep.

Arbitrary imagination is of much greater importance for a person. This type of imagination manifests itself when a person is faced with the task of creating certain images, outlined by himself or given to him from outside. In these cases, the process of imagination is controlled and directed by the person himself. The basis of such work of the imagination is the ability to arbitrarily call up and change the necessary representations.

According to the degree of severity of activity, they differ:

1) passive imagination; 2) active imagination.

According to the degree of independence of the imagination and the originality of its products, two types of imagination are distinguished - recreative and creative.

Recreating imagination-representation of objects new to humans in accordance with their description, drawing, diagram. This type of imagination is used in a wide variety of activities. We encounter this kind of imagination when we read descriptions of geographical places or historical events, and also when we get acquainted with literary heroes. The study of geographical maps serves as a kind of school for the recreative imagination. The habit of wandering around the map and imagining different places helps to see them correctly in reality. Spatial imagination, necessary in the study of stereometry, develops by carefully examining drawings and natural three-dimensional bodies from various angles. It should be noted that the recreating imagination forms not only visual representations, but also tactile, auditory, etc.

Most often, we encounter recreative imagination when it is necessary to recreate some idea from a verbal description. However, there are times when we recreate an idea about an object without using words, but on the basis of diagrams and drawings. In this case, the success of recreating the image is largely determined by the ability of a person to spatial imagination, that is, the ability to recreate the image in three-dimensional space. Consequently, the process of recreative imagination is closely connected with human thinking and memory.

The next type of imagination creative. It is characterized by the fact that a person transforms ideas and creates new images (which are realized in original and valuable products of activity) not according to an existing model, but independently outlining the contours of the created image and choosing the necessary materials for it.

At the same time, they differ:

novelty objective- if the images and ideas are original and do not repeat anything that is available about the experience of other people;

novelty is subjective- if they repeat previously created ones, but for a given person they are new and original.

The creative imagination that has arisen in the work remains an integral part of technical, artistic and any other creativity, taking the form of an active and purposeful operation of visual representations in search of ways to satisfy needs.

Creative imagination, as well as recreative one, is closely connected with memory, since in all cases of its manifestation a person uses his previous experience. Therefore, there is no rigid boundary between recreating creative imagination.

The source of creative activity is social necessity, the need for a particular new product.

It is wrong to think that creativity is a free play of the imagination that does not require much and sometimes hard work. The so-called inspiration - the optimal concentration of the spiritual forces and abilities of a person - is the result of a lot of previous work.

A special form of imagination is dream. The essence of this type of imagination lies in the independent creation of new images. At the same time, the dream has a number of significant differences from the creative imagination. Firstly, in a dream a person always creates an image of what he wants, while in creative images the desires of their creator are not always embodied. In dreams finds its figurative expression that which attracts a person, to which he aspires. Secondly, a dream is a process of imagination that is not included in creative activity, that is, it does not immediately and directly give an objective product in the form of a work of art, a scientific discovery, a technical invention, etc.

The main feature of a dream is that it is aimed at future activities, that is, a dream is an imagination aimed at a desired future. Moreover, several subtypes of this type of imagination should be distinguished.

Most often, a person builds plans for the future and in his dream determines the ways to achieve his plan. In this case, the dream is an active, arbitrary, conscious process.

But there are people for whom a dream acts as a substitute for activity. One of the reasons for this phenomenon, as a rule, lies in the failures in life that they constantly suffer. As a result of a series of failures, a person refuses to fulfill his plans and plunges into a dream. In this case, the dream acts as a conscious, arbitrary process that has no practical end.

There are situations when a dream acts as a kind of psychological defense, providing a temporary escape from the problems that have arisen, which contributes to a certain neutralization of the negative mental state and ensuring the safety of regulatory mechanisms while reducing the overall activity of a person.

Imagination is passive- characterized by the creation of images that do not come to life; programs that are not implemented or cannot be implemented at all. In this case, imagination acts as a substitute for activity, its surrogate, because of which a person refuses the need to act.

It can be:

1) deliberate- creates images (dreams) that are not connected with the will, which could contribute to their realization; the predominance of dreams in the processes of imagination indicates certain defects in the development of the personality. All people tend to dream about something joyful, pleasant, tempting. In daydreams, the connection between fantasy products and needs is easily revealed. But if in the processes of imagination a person is dominated by dreams, then this is a defect in the development of the personality, it indicates its passivity. If a person is passive, if he does not fight for a better future, and his real life is difficult and bleak, then he often creates for himself an illusory, invented life, where his needs are fully satisfied, where he succeeds in everything, where he occupies a position that he cannot hope for at present. time and in real life;

2) unintentional- observed when the activity of consciousness, the second signal system, is weakened, with a temporary inactivity of a person, with his pathological disorders, in half-asleep, in a dream, in a state of passion.

Types of imagination can be represented in a diagram

1.4 Development of the imagination, conditions for the development of the imagination

Man is not born with a developed imagination. The development of the imagination is carried out in the course of human ontogeny and requires the accumulation of a certain stock of ideas, which in the future can serve as material for creating images of the imagination. It develops in close connection with the development of the whole personality, in the process of training and education, as well as in unity with thinking, memory, will and feelings.

It is very difficult to determine any specific age limits that characterize the dynamics of the development of the imagination.

Despite the complexity of determining the stages of development of a person's imagination, certain patterns in its formation can be distinguished. So the first manifestations of imagination are closely connected with the process of perception. For example, children at the age of one and a half years are still unable to listen to even the simplest fairy tales, they are constantly distracted or fall asleep, but listen with pleasure to stories about what they themselves have experienced. In this phenomenon, the connection between imagination and perception is quite clearly visible. The child listens to the story of his experiences because he clearly understands what is being said. The connection between perception and imagination is preserved at the next stage of development, when the child in his games begins to process the impressions received, modifying previously perceived objects in his imagination. The chair turns into a cave or an airplane, a box into a car. It should be noted that the first images of the child's imagination are always connected with the activity. The child does not dream, but embodies the reworked image in his activity, even despite the fact that this activity is a game.

An important stage in the development of imagination is associated with the age when child learns to speak. Speech allows you to include in the imagination not only specific images, but also more abstract ideas and concepts. Moreover, speech allows the child to move from the expression of images of the imagination in activity to their direct expression in speech.

The stage of mastering speech is accompanied by an increase in practical experience and the development of attention, which makes it easier for the child to single out individual parts of the subject, which he already perceives as independent and which he increasingly operates in his imagination.

However, the synthesis occurs with significant distortions of reality. Due to the lack of sufficient experience and insufficient critical thinking, the child cannot create an image that is close to reality. The main feature of this stage is involuntary nature of the appearance of images of the imagination. Most often, images of the imagination are formed in a child of this age involuntarily, in accordance with the situation in which he is.

The next stage in the development of the imagination is associated with the appearance of its active forms.. At this stage, the process of imagination becomes arbitrary. The emergence of active forms of imagination is initially associated with a stimulating initiative on the part of an adult. Later, the child begins to use arbitrary imagination without any adult participation. This leap in the development of the imagination finds its reflection, first of all, in the nature of the child's games. They become purposeful and plot-driven. The object of a child's play often exists only in the imagination, just as for adults, the element of imagination is an important transition from the world of work to the world of play and leisure. The things surrounding the child become not just stimuli for the development of objective activity, but act as material for the embodiment of images of his imagination.

Another major shift in imagination occurs at school age. The need to understand the educational material causes the activation of the process of recreating imagination. In order to assimilate the knowledge that is given at school, the child actively uses his imagination, which causes the progressive development of the ability to process images of perception into images of imagination.

Another reason for the rapid development of the imagination during school years is that in the process of learning, the child actively receives new and versatile ideas about objects and phenomena of the real world. These representations serve as a necessary basis for imagination and stimulate the creative activity of the student.

It can be concluded that the main significance of imagination is that without it any human labor would be impossible, since it is impossible to work without imagining the final result and intermediate results. The activity of imagination is always correlated with reality.

Conditions for the development of the imagination

The child's imagination is connected in its origins with the symbolic function of consciousness emerging towards the end of early childhood. One line of development of the sign function leads from the replacement of objects with other objects and their images to the use of speech, mathematical and other signs and to the mastery of logical forms of thinking. The other line leads to the emergence and expansion of the ability to supplement and replace real things, situations, imaginary events, build from the material of accumulated ideas new images.

The imagination of the child develops in the game. At first, it is inseparable from the perception of objects and the performance of game actions with them. The child rides on a stick, and at this moment he is a rider, and the stick is a horse. But he cannot imagine a horse in the absence of an object suitable for galloping, and he cannot mentally transform a stick into a horse at a time when he is not working with it.

In the play of children of three or four years of age, the similarity of the substitute object with the object that it replaces is of essential importance.

In older children, the imagination can also rely on objects that are not at all similar to the ones being replaced.

From the diary of V.S. Mukhina

Floor game.

Toys: a dog, a squirrel, a badger, two nesting dolls and a key. Key Ole Lukoye. Two matryoshka-Thumbelina. Cyril puts everyone to bed. Ole Lukoye comes up to everyone blowing in the back of the head. (Kirill blows himself.) The animals woke up and began to jump: from the bookshelf to the picture, from the picture to the bookshelf. And so 18 times. Then the animals went to drink the nectar prepared by Thumbelina. Then there was the wedding of Ole Lukoye (key) and two Thumbelinas. Then everyone got tired and went to a peculiar place - on a shelf.

In this case, the key provided the child with sufficient support to imagine the magician.

Gradually, the need for external supports disappears. Internalization takes place - a transition to a game action with an object that does not really exist, and to a game transformation of the object, giving it a new meaning and presenting actions in the mind, without real action. This is the birth of imagination as a special mental process.

From the observations of K. Stern

Very favorite Günteromigra in classics. A plan with numbered cells is drawn on the floor; then you need to throw a pebble into one of the cells and, jumping on one leg, knock it out of the cell without touching the line with your foot. Gunther sometimes plays this game in the room, without any equipment. He imagines a drawing on the floor, imagines throwing a pebble, rejoices that he hit "100" (obviously, the drawing is drawn very brightly in front of his inner vision), jumps carefully so as not to hit the features, and so on.

On the other hand, the game can take place without visible actions, entirely in terms of presentation.

From the diary of V.S. Mukhina

Kirilka arranges toys around her. Lies among them. Quiet for about an hour.

- What are you doing? Are you sick?

- Not. I play.

- How do you play?

- Yana look at them and think what is happening to them.

Being formed in the game, the imagination passes into other activities of the preschooler. It manifests itself most clearly in drawing and in the composition of fairy tales and poems by the child. Here, just as in play, children first rely on directly perceived objects or strokes on paper that appear under them.

From the observations of K. and V. Shternov

I managed to overhear the boy while he was drawing on the blackboard. At first he wanted to draw a camel; he probably drew a head protruding from the body. But the camel was already forgotten; the side ledge reminded him of a butterfly's wing. He said: “Draw a butterfly?” He erased the parts of the vertical line that protruded at the top and bottom and drew the second wing. Then followed: “Another butterfly… Now I will draw another bird. Anything that can fly. Butterflies, birds, and then a fly will go. Depicts a bird. "Now the moon! Flies, however, know how to bite, ”and he put two dots (two jabs) on the board. The vertical line between them is also included in the image of a fly, but, drawing it, he exclaimed: “Ah, a fly! Let me draw the sun! - drew.

Composing fairy tales, poems, children reproduce familiar images and often simply repeat remembered phrases and lines. At the same time, preschoolers of three or four years old usually do not realize that they are reproducing what is already known. So, one boy once said: “Here, listen to how I composed:“ A swallow with spring flies to us in the canopy. ”They try to explain to him that he didn’t write it. But after a while the boy declares again: “I composed: “A swallow flies to us in the canopy in the spring.” Another child was also sure that he was the author of the following lines: “I am not afraid of anyone but my mother alone” ... Do you like how I composed? "They try to lead him out of error:" It's not you who composed it, but Pushkin: you are not afraid of anyone but God alone. "The child is disappointed. "But I thought I composed it."

In such cases, children's compositions are entirely based on memory, not including the work of the imagination. However, more often the child combines images, introduces new, unusual combinations of them.

From the diary of E.I. Stanchinskaya

Yura composed a fairy tale: “Once upon a time there were two devils. They had a small house, there were little devils. They lived far away, far away, beyond the sea, beyond the forest, beyond hot countries, in a large dark forest. Here an old man rode on a golden-winged horse, rode and did not know where his black horse was. The wolf said: "Go to the dark forest, and there is a step down, there are three doors: one, two, three."

The wolf went with him, opened the doors, took a black horse, tied a golden-maned horse, sat on a black one, and two horses rushed off. Etc.

It is not difficult to trace the origin of all the elements included in the tale. These are images of familiar fairy tales, but their new combination creates a fantastic picture, not similar to the situations perceived by the child or told to him.

The transformation of reality in the child's imagination occurs not only by combining ideas, but also by giving objects properties that are not inherent in them. So, children in their imagination exaggerate or underestimate objects with passion. One wants a tiny globe of the earth, so that everything on it is “for real”: rivers and oceans, tigers and monkeys. Another tells how he built a “house up to the ceiling! No, up to the seventh floor! No, up to the stars!“

There is an opinion that the imagination of a child is richer than the imagination of an adult. This opinion is based on the fact that children fantasize for a variety of reasons. A three-year-old boy, drawing a corner, added a small hook to it and, struck by the resemblance of this squiggle to a seated human figure, suddenly exclaimed: “Ah, he is sitting!” After a moment, he sat down on a bench and cried: “Now I will always be salted!” - “Who?” - they ask. - “Greasy land.” Another boy sincerely believed that stones could think and feel. they are compelled to see the same thing day in and day out.Out of pity, the child carried them from one end of the road to the other.

However, the imagination of a child is actually not richer, but in many respects poorer than that of an adult. A child can imagine much less than an adult, because children have more limited life experience and, therefore, less material for imagination. Less diverse are the combinations of images that the child builds.

At the same time, imagination plays a greater role in the life of a child than in the life of an adult, it manifests itself much more often and allows for a much easier departure from reality, a violation of life reality. The tireless work of the imagination is one of the ways leading to the knowledge and development of the surrounding world by children, going beyond the limits of narrow-minded experience.

But this work requires constant supervision by adults, under whose guidance the child acquires the ability to distinguish the imaginary from reality.

The ratio of involuntary and arbitrary imagination.

The imagination of preschool children is largely involuntary. The subject of imagination becomes what greatly excited the child. Under the influence of feelings, children compose their own fairy tales. Very often, the child does not know in advance what his poem will be about: “I’ll tell you, then you will hear, but I don’t know yet,” he calmly declares.

Deliberate imagination, guided by a predetermined goal, is still absent in preschoolers of younger and middle age. It is formed by the senior preschool age in the process of developing productive activities, when children master the ability to build and embody a certain idea in the design.

The development of voluntary, deliberate imagination, as well as the development of voluntary forms of attention and memory, is one of the aspects of the general process of the formation of speech regulation of the child's behavior. Setting a goal and managing the construction of a plan in productive activities is carried out with the help of speech. (1; p.257-261)

At primary school age, a child in his imagination can already create a variety of situations. Being formed in the game substitutions of some objects for others, the imagination passes into other types of activity.

Under the conditions of educational activity, special requirements are imposed on the child's imagination, which defeat him for arbitrary actions of the imagination. The teacher in the classroom invites children to imagine a situation in which certain transformations of objects, images, signs take place. These educational requirements encourage the development of the imagination, but they need to be reinforced with special tools - otherwise the child finds it difficult to advance in arbitrary actions of the imagination. These can be real objects, diagrams, layouts, signs, graphic images, and more.

Composing all kinds of stories, rhyming "poems", inventing fairy tales, depicting various characters, children can borrow plots, stanzas of poems, graphic images that they know, sometimes without noticing it at all. However, often the child deliberately combines well-known plots, creates new images, exaggerating certain aspects and qualities of his characters. A child, if his speech and imagination are sufficiently developed, if he enjoys reflecting on the meanings and meaning of words, verbal complexes and images of the imagination, can come up with and tell an entertaining story, can improvise, enjoying his improvisation himself and including other people in it.

In the imagination, the child creates dangerous, scary situations. The main thing is overcoming, finding a friend, access to the light, for example, joy. The experience of negative tension in the process of creating and deploying imaginary situations, managing the plot, interrupting images and returning to them train the child's imagination as an arbitrary creative activity.

In addition, imagination can act as an activity that brings a therapeutic effect.

A child who experienced difficulties in real life, perceiving his personal situation as hopeless, can go into an imaginary world. So, when there is no father, and this brings inexpressible pain, in the imagination one can acquire the most wonderful, most extraordinary, generous, strong, courageous father.

Imagination, no matter how fantastic it may be in its storyline, is based on the norms of real social space. Having experienced good or aggressive impulses in his imagination, the child can thereby prepare for himself the motivation for future actions.

Imagination in the life of a child plays a greater role than in the life of an adult, manifesting itself much more often, and more often allows a violation of life reality.

The tireless work of the imagination is the most important way for a child to learn and master the world around him, a way to go beyond the limits of personal practical experience, the most important psychological prerequisite for the development of creativity and a way to master the normativity of social space, the latter forces the imagination to work directly on the reserve of personal qualities.

Eiji Kamiya, famous Japanese teacher, professor at the University of Bukyo (Kyoto)

Specialist in the field of studying the problems of imagination, thinking, emotions, games, environmental education of preschoolers

1.5 Imagination, expression, bodily dialogue

Preschool age can be viewed as a transitional stage from the "natural" imagination to the elements of "cultural". Of course, for the emergence of these elements, the guidance of the educator is necessary. However, this guidance should be gentle. The gentleness of leadership should be understood as follows: without imposing on the children the products of his own imagination, the educator proceeds from the embryonic forms of the imagination of the children themselves.

This is achieved through a variety of means. The teacher organizes dialogues in which each child expresses his vision of the subject. In this he is helped not only by the word, but by the bodily image. Finally, the educator initiates the "co-imagination" of the group, including his own. Thus, the softness of the leadership ensures the unity of children's interest with targeted pedagogical support.

This corresponds to the idea of L.S. Vygotsky, who defined learning at preschool age as “spontaneous-reactive”, in contrast to “spontaneous” at an early age and “reactive” at school age / cm. footnote/.

Let's consider this situation with an example environmental education of children. The theme of one of the classes is devoted to the swallow. In its course, children are faced with the need to physically portray the character, which makes the images of their imagination more meaningful and underlies soft pedagogical guidance. The teacher, together with the children, several times examines the swallow chicks in the nest and their parents “educating” them. The teacher, first of all, tries to reveal the originality of the children's vision of the situation and how children develop their own assessment of the situation. Two types of views can be distinguished.

The first - "actual".The child only describes the situation: " Baby swallows have eyes";"Their bodies are black". Answering the question of what the nest is made of, the child says:" From stones"; "From straws"etc. These estimates refer to the visible properties of objects that appear to children from a purely external side.

But children also have a different view - let's call it "human". It is based on imagination and allows you to see objects from the inside, allows you to penetrate them on an emotional-sensory level. For example, looking at adult swallows in a nest, we are convinced that the birds communicate with their children: “The swallow fed her children in turn, she is a tender mother”; "Parents now said something to the little ones" etc.

Children, as it were, penetrate into the “hidden life” of swallows. This view reveals what the outstanding Swiss psychologist J. Piaget called children's animism - the desire to endow the inanimate with a soul, emotions, feelings, etc. the child empathizes with the swallow as a creature equal in rights with all living things, including people, with himself. The “human” view can be correlated with what D. B. Elkonin called the “semantic field”, in contrast to the “visible field”, which, according to our typology, corresponds to the “actual” view. The child, as it were, transfers to the chick the feeling that he experienced when he was in a similar situation.

Interpretation of reality through imagination

The "human" view is the interpretation of real phenomena through the imagination. It allows you to form that semantic "approach" to reality, within which future scientific knowledge will acquire a truly meaningful character. The “human” view of the educator can be shown and developed in the course of special work, for example, on the topic “Parents-swallows have arrived”.

Educator.Why do swallows sit on electric wires, and not immediately in the nest?

Children. Answer A.They are a little tired and rest there.

Swallows fly into the nest, but then return to the wires again.

Answer V. They show the little ones how to fly.

Indeed, real - not imaginary - parents-swallows teach their chicks to fly in this way. Children's fantasy has come into contact with reality as much as possible. However, the imagination is egocentric, animistic in nature.

With appropriate guidance, the "human" view in children can develop in the direction of expanding the creative potential of the imagination. Let's take another example.

Educator.Parents-swallows often flew in, sat on the edge of the nest, looked at the chicks and flew away again.

Children. Answer A.Now the parents said something to the kids.

Educator.What did they say?

Answer V. They asked if you could fly already?

This is how the transition from the visible to the “invisible” situation takes place, as evidenced by version V. When comprehending the picture of reality, the possibilities of imagination expand. It becomes more and more indirect, less and less "attached" to the observed concrete situation.

This is the transformation of "natural" imagination into "cultural", truly creative. But this transformation does not happen spontaneously. It is provided by soft pedagogical guidance. It is aimed primarily at supporting the expressive actions of children. Expressive and effective empathy with the object is simultaneously expressed and experienced by the child himself.

Deepening the imagination through expression

In order to pedagogically organize such feeling, the educator uses a palette of means: observations of real objects, conversations about what he saw, a bodily image of his own understanding and an emotional assessment of what was observed, singing, drawing, listening to a fairy tale related to the experiences of children, free play. In addition to the last remedy, the rest receive concretization in a comprehensive lesson. The central elements from the point of view of the development of the imagination are "conversation" and "body image", although they are closely related to other elements. Here is an example of discussion and body image from this practice.

Beginning of the lesson. The children are talking about the swallows they saw in the morning.

Answer A. The swallow children reached for the edge of the nest (when the parents arrived).

Answer V. When the mother swallow brought food, the children moved their wings.

Educator.Imagine that this is a nest. Show how baby swallows behaved when their parents appeared.

Children begin body image. They imitate different reactions of chicks: A. wants to jump out of the nest by all means; V. demanding food, sings loudly.

In this example, the children's body image is a memory of what they saw. Therefore, its form is reproducing. Words and bodily images that reproduce reality are necessary to create a picture of the situation. This provides the necessary material for

In the future, the teacher creates the conditions for an in-depth bodily image. An example from this practice.

The game unfolds.

Child A.The role of mother-swallow

child V. The role of the baby swallow

BUT. Depicts how a swallow flies to her baby, feeds him, and then says something to him.

Educator. AT., Mom told you about what? Remember.

child V. Mom told me to fly myself.

Educator. Mom and Dad, watch what your kids are doing.

Then the playing roles of parents and children are distributed among other children. Chicks move their wings and try to fly to their parent swallows. Parents contribute to this, for example, supporting children with wings (hands) until they learn to fly.

Body image allows children to make visible to others the images of their imagination, to tell them about their emotions. Here, children practically do not use external speech. They bodily convey the feelings of swallows - children or parents, feelings in which they managed to penetrate and with which they empathize (based on real experiences and listening to fairy tales).

Thus, the imagination deepens and expands through bodily imagination. Such an image presents the main elements and characteristics of imagination in general: the unity of "fantasy and reality", orientation to the position of another "person", creative processing of memories, activation of (not external) speech.

Body image and dialogue in an imaginary situation

For two or three days the children were engaged in drawing, showing how a family of swallows flies over the sea to the southern island. It was presented as a bodily image imitating a journey. Children depicted waves that suddenly grew and tried to overtake the travelers. At first, the family of swallows flew as if through the waves, but as the waves grew, they began to try to fly up (the nature of the movements changed).

The main task was not to convey the actual picture of the "pursuit", but the emotional state experienced by the swallows. In a conditional situation, it is precisely creative imagination that should manifest itself, and not mere recollection of what has been seen. This does not mean a separation of imagination from reality. The depiction of emotions and their experience by the children themselves make the reproduction of reality more complete and adequate.

But most importantly, a unique and diverse dialogue emerges here. The dialogue between the "children-waves" and "children-swallows" at the same time causes a dialogue between the children playing and observing. A special place is occupied by the dialogue of the educator with the children. The first and second dialogues are practically non-linguistic, bodily in nature. At the same time, from the point of view of emotional expression, bodily dialogue at preschool age can be richer and richer in content than language. To whom speech cannot depict everything (the writer V. Nabokov spoke of the "charm of the unnamed world").

Firstly, bodily dialogue is possible only in an imaginary situation. Children did not really observe swallows over the sea, without delving into their "relationship" with the waves. However, on an emotional level, that was exactly what needed to be imagined.

The remarkable Russian psychologist V.V. Davydov, the founder of the theory of developmental education, said that the activity of a preschool child should be desirable and joyful (see footnote). It is important to emphasize that these are not external or "background" attributes ("accompaniment"), but key, essential features of children's activity. The well-known provisions on the unity of affect and intellect (L.S. Vygotsky), the role of “smart” emotions and emotional anticipation (A.V. Zaporozhets) in the activities of preschoolers serve to concretize this general understanding. So, only partial assistance, growing into empathy, lies at the basis of the child's familiarization with the kazam of the human and humane. This is brilliantly demonstrated in the classical works of A.V. Zaporozhets. For example, when watching a performance in a kindergarten, younger preschoolers jump up from their seats, run onto the stage, begin to “contribute” and “empathize” with the characters. Similarly, today's kids watch TV.

Effectively expressive form of experience is the original form of human emotion. It, like the subsequent developed forms of emotionality, is internally connected with the imagination.

Secondly, bodily dialogue is necessarily accompanied by an attempt to take the position of another "person". As shown in the works of V.V. Davydov, V.T. Kudryavtsev, this is the most important, fundamental characteristic of the human imagination. By becoming another "person", expressing his imaginary thoughts and emotions, the child simultaneously expresses his thoughts and emotions. At the same time, children bodily depict the inner meaning of the situation richer than verbally.

Thirdly, the bodily dialogue between playing children is closely connected with other dialogues. As noted, a special dialogue is established not only between the players, but also between the children playing and the spectators-children (and adults). If the bodily movements of children really depict the thoughts and emotions of another “person” in an imaginary situation, the audience not only carefully observe what is happening, but also sympathize with the characters and the players themselves, without separating the first from the second, penetrate into the states they experience, become infected with their emotional energy. When such “sympathy” arises for the spectators, the players, in turn, receive emotional support from the children-spectators. Only the educator takes his specific place in this situation. He verbally enters into an imaginary situation. The role of the educator is the verbal recreation of the picture, the fixation of fairy-tale images, the expression in the word of the emotional state of the characters, the activation of the joint imagination of children. Thus, the bodily dialogue between the players creates the basis for other dialogues, more precisely, polylogues, which enriches the possibilities of both joint and their individual imagination.

Children easily succumb to their emotions, and often they are even encouraged to do so. While for adults, one of the main components of existence is work, children express themselves in the game. As a result, the child is much freer than adults to express their feelings and emotions. Imagination determines the nature of the impact of these feelings and emotions on their thoughts and behavior, it enriches the life of the child. Endowing things and objects with magical and fantastic properties, he is so interested in them that he learns a lot of useful things about the world around him.

In a word, with the help of imagination, the baby develops his abilities with interest, learns and acquires a sense of his own importance. Fantasies give him a joyful opportunity to express himself creatively. Imagination is harmless, and often beneficial for the child. If a child has a stormy, cheerful, free imagination, this is a sign of health.

2. Practical part2.1 Who has a richer imagination: an adult or a child

Why do preschoolers develop imagination? It is already much brighter and more original than the adult imagination. Many people think so.

It's not exactly like that. Psychological research shows that a child's imagination develops gradually, as he accumulates certain experience. All images of the imagination, no matter how bizarre, are based on the ideas and impressions that we receive in real life. In other words, the more and more diverse our experience, the greater the potential of our imagination.

That is why the imagination of a child is in no way richer, but in many respects poorer than the imagination of an adult. He has more limited life experience and therefore less fantasy material. Less diverse are the combinations of images that he builds. It’s just that sometimes a child explains in his own way what he encounters in life, and these explanations sometimes seem unexpected and original to us adults. At the same time, imagination plays a more important role in a child’s life than in an adult’s life. It manifests itself much more often and is much easier to break away from reality. With its help, children learn about the world around them and themselves.

The child's imagination must be developed from childhood, and the most sensitive, “sensitive” period for such development is preschool age. “Imagination,” as psychologist Dyachenko O.M. wrote, who studied this function in detail, “is like that sensitive musical instrument, the mastery of which opens up opportunities for self-expression, requires the child to find and fulfill his own ideas and desires.”

Imagination can creatively transform reality, its images are flexible, mobile, and their combinations allow us to give new and unexpected results. In this regard, the development of this mental function is also the basis for improving the creative abilities of the child. Unlike the creative imagination of an adult, the child's fantasy does not participate in the creation of social products of labor. She participates in creativity “for herself”, there are no requirements for realizability and productivity. At the same time, it is of great importance for the development of the very actions of the imagination, preparation for the upcoming creativity in the future.

1. Use item substitutes. External support plays an important role in the development of the child's imagination. If in the early stages of development (at 3-4 years old) the imagination of a preschooler is inseparable from real actions with play material and is determined by the nature of the toys, the similarity of substitute objects with replaced objects, then in children of 6-7 years there is no longer such a close dependence of play on play material. imagination can also rely on such objects that are not at all similar to the ones they replace. For example, a child can ride on a stick, representing himself as a rider, and the stick as a horse. Gradually, the need for external supports will disappear. Internalization will take place - a transition to a game action with an object that does not really exist, to the representation of actions with it in the mind. However, for this, the child must first be taught to easily operate with various substitutes for objects. Such substitutes can be other objects, geometric figures, signs, etc.

2. To carry out "objectification" of an indefinite object.

Children begin to use the “objectification” method from the age of 3-4. It consists in the fact that the child can see a certain object in an unfinished figure. So, in the task of drawing an indefinite image, he can, for example, turn a circle into a wheel for a car or into a ball, a triangle into the roof of a house or into a sail for a ship, etc. By the age of 6-7, the child should already be relatively fluent in this method, and also learn how to add various details to the “objectified” drawing.

3. Create images based on a verbal description or an incomplete graphic image.

This ability is very important for the upcoming educational activities of the child. The need to create images based on a verbal description and a graphic image arises when reading a book (figurative representation of the described situations, characters), when realizing the meaning of new words (figurative representation of objects and phenomena that these words denote), when recognizing objects, when the field of their perception is limited (figurative representation object, when it is not completely visible, but only some part of it is visible) and in some other situations. At the same time, the better the child's ability to create such images is developed, the more accurate and stable ideas he has. To develop this ability, you can use tasks in which the child must:

a) create an image of an object according to its verbal description;

b) recreate a holistic image of a picture based on the perception of one or more of its parts.

4. Operate in mind with images of simple multidimensional objects (spatial imagination).

All objects of the world around us exist in space. And images of the imagination, in order to be adequate, must reflect the spatial characteristics of these objects. In this regard, it is very important to develop in a child the ability to "see" the image of an object, taking into account its spatial location. To train this ability, children of six years old can be offered two types of games:

a) mental transformation of an object in space,

b) representation of the mutual "arrangement of several objects in space.

5. Subordinate your own imagination to a certain idea, create and consistently implement the plan of this idea.

Only the consistent implementation of the plan can lead to the fulfillment of the plan. The inability to manage one's ideas, to subordinate them to one's goal leads to the fact that the most interesting ideas and intentions of the child often do not reach their embodiment. At this age, the child already has the necessary prerequisites in order to learn how to act according to a pre-planned plan. Therefore, it is very important to develop this ability, to teach the child not only to aimlessly and fragmentarily fantasize, but to realize their ideas, to create at least small and simple, but complete works (drawings, stories, designs, etc.).

Learning this skill should include the following steps:

I - plan demonstration stage: an adult shows how to draw up a plan (diagram) of a finished work (design);

II - the stage of independent "reading" of the plan: the child learns to "read" the plan (diagram) drawn up by you and create his own work on its basis;

III - the stage of self-planning: the child himself draws up a plan (scheme) of his own work.

Cognitive processes have been considered in more detail, but one cannot fail to mention other skills that, to one degree or another, must be developed in a child for learning at school.

2.2 Child Development Test

Target: Test to identify the level of development of the child. How to study creativity

CREATIVE IMAGINATION

Prepare several geometric shapes of different colors and shapes from cardboard. The figures should be simple and complex, regular and irregular in shape (circle, triangle, star, rectangle, oval, etc.). They can also vary in size. Offer the child such a task: you will read a fairy tale to him, let the child select her heroes from the proposed geometric shapes.

Each figurine is a specific symbol. Will the preschooler be able to complete your task? How does he perceive it: with interest or bewilderment?

Maybe he does not perceive it at all, saying that the figures are not at all like the heroes of a fairy tale?

Attitude towards the task first indicator

Is the child capable of creative search? Does it deviate from the pattern? Is there really a similarity between the fairy-tale character and the chosen

geometric shape?

The ability to explain one's choice, to somehow argue the similarity of the figure and the hero of a fairy tale - second indicator development of creative imagination.

Third indicator- the desire of the child to continue the game, to illustrate new stories.

Creative imagination presupposes independent thinking of a preschooler, ingenuity, the ability to quickly navigate in a problem situation, brightness, unexpectedness of emerging images, associations. Without creative imagination, it would be impossible to develop the creative abilities of a child. (2; p.23-24)

2.3 Solving problems on the imagination

Study preparation. Pick up album sheets for each child with figures drawn on them: a contour image of parts of objects, for example, a trunk with one branch, a circle - a head with two ears, etc., and simple geometric shapes (circle, square, triangle, etc.) .Prepare colored pencils, felt-tip pens.

Conducting research. A child of 7-8 years old is asked to complete each of the figures so that some kind of picture is obtained. You can preliminarily conduct an introductory conversation about the ability to fantasize (remember what happens, clouds in the sky look like, etc.).

Data processing. The degree of originality, unusualness of the image is revealed. Set the type of problem solving to the imagination.

Null type. It is characterized by the fact that the child does not yet accept the task of building an image of the imagination using this element. He underdraws it, and draws something of his own side by side (free fantasy).

First type. The child draws the figure on the card in such a way that an image of a separate object (a tree) is obtained, but the image is contour, schematic, devoid of details.

Second type. A separate object is also depicted, but with various details.

Third type. Depicting a separate object, the child already includes it in some imaginary plot (not just a girl, but a girl doing exercises).

Fourth type. The child depicts several objects according to an imaginary plot (a girl walks with a dog).

Fifth type. The given figure is used qualitatively in a new way. If in types 1-4 it acts as the main part of the picture that the child was drawing (circle - head, etc.), now the figure is included as one of the secondary elements to create an image of the imagination (the triangle is no longer the roof of the house, but the pencil lead, which the boy draws a picture).

Developmental stage

This stage includes work on the development of the imagination, designed to connect the creative potential of the child.

Types of work.

Journal of fiction in faces.

The event is held in the form of a competition. The class is divided into two teams. Each command is a journal edition. Each member of the editorial board has a serial number. The facilitator starts the story:

Once upon a time there was a little screw. When he was born, he was very beautiful, shiny, with brand new carvings and eight facets. Everyone said that he had a great future. He, along with some cogs, will participate in the flight on a spaceship. And finally, the day came when Vintik found himself aboard a huge spaceship...

At the most interesting place, the presenter stops with the words: "To be continued in the magazine"......." in the issue ....... "The child who has this number in his hands should pick up the thread of the plot and continue the story. The facilitator carefully follows the narration, interrupts at the right place. The child should say: “To be continued in the magazine ""......." in the issue ......." ....."

As a result of children's creativity, the main character has visited many planets, met with aliens ..

In general, this type of activity showed that it is still difficult for children to engage in free fantasy. They do a better job with ready-made templates.

What does it look like.

The development of imagination plays an important role in the creative education of the child's personality. It is necessary to include as much as possible in practice activities aimed at enhancing the processes of imagination. I would like to propose the following work in this direction.

This event is held in the form of a game. Up to 30 children can participate in it, it is better to take the role of the leader to the teacher, educator. With the help of the leader, children choose 2-3 people who should be isolated from the general group for several minutes. At this time, everyone else thinks of a word, preferably an object. Then isolated guys are invited. Their task is to guess what was guessed with the help of the question: “What does it look like?” For example, if the word “bow” is guessed, then to the question: “What does it look like?” such answers can come from the audience: “On the propeller of the aircraft”, etc. As soon as the drivers guess what was guessed, the leader changes them, and the game is repeated again.

This type of work allows children to develop figurative thinking, contributes to the activation of teamwork skills.

Photo moment.

This form of group activity is also aimed at developing the imagination. However, its effectiveness is lower than the effectiveness of the activities described above. First of all, because the object of active development here is only the leader.

I will describe the method of carrying out the event. After a brief conversation on the topic “What is a photo moment”, explaining the meaning of this word, the teacher introduces the child to the world of photography: people always want to leave something as a memory of some events, often it is a photograph. Photos are different: funny and sad, small and large, color and black and white, there are photographs where people insert their faces into a small window carved into a picture depicting animals, famous people, etc.

Then the children choose one driver who inserts his own face into such a picture, not knowing what is drawn on it. His task is to guess who he portrays by asking questions like:

Am I a plant?

I can fly?

Am I an object in this room? etc.

All other guys can only answer his questions with the words: “Yes; No".

/>2.4 Tests for the study of the development of the imagination

Test: "Verbal (verbal) fantasy"

Invite the child to come up with a story (story, fairy tale) about some living creature (person, animal) or about something else of their choice and present it orally within 5 minutes. Up to one minute is allotted for inventing a theme or plot of a story (story, fairy tale), and after that the child starts the story.

At the entrance of the story, the child's fantasy is evaluated according to the following indicators:

1.Speed of imagination.

2. Unusualness, originality of images of the imagination.

3. Richness of fantasy, depth and detail of images.

4. Emotionality of images.

The speed of imagination is highly valued if the child came up with the plot of the story in the allotted time on his own.

If within one minute the child has not come up with the plot of the story, then tell him any plot.

Unusualness, originality of images of the imagination is highly appreciated if the child came up with something that he could not see or hear anywhere before, or retold something known, but at the same time introduced something new, original into it.

The richness, depth and detail of the fantasy are assessed by a fairly large number of different living beings, objects, situations and actions, various characteristics and signs attributed to all this in the child's story, by the presence in the story of various details and characteristics of images.

If a child uses more than 7 such signs in his story, and the object of the story is not depicted schematically, then his fantasy is well developed.

The emotionality of images of the imagination is assessed by how vividly and enthusiastically the invented events, characters, and their actions are described.

Test: "Non-verbal fantasy"

Show the child a drawing with different unfinished images and ask him to draw something interesting using these images (Fig. 41).

When the child draws, ask him to describe what he has drawn.

Result:

Stereotypical thinking, copying from others, a weak level of fantasy.

Testing of the child is necessary, at a minimum, for the following purposes:

Firstly, to determine how much the level of its development corresponds to the norms that are typical for children of this age.

Secondly, diagnostics is needed in order to find out the individual characteristics of the development of abilities. Some of them can be developed well, and some not so much. The presence of a child with some insufficiently developed intellectual abilities can cause serious difficulties in the process of subsequent education at school. With the help of tests, these “weak points” can be identified in advance, and appropriate adjustments can be made to intellectual training.

Thirdly, tests can be useful in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the means and methods that you use for the mental development of the child.

And finally, fourthly, children need to be introduced to various tests so that they are thus prepared for the tests that will await them both when they enter school and at various stages of education in the future. Familiarity with typical test items will help they avoid during such tests excessive emotional stress, or confusion, called the “surprise effect”, feel more confident and comfortable. Knowing these tests will allow them to even the odds with those who, for one reason or another, already have experience in testing.

almost all scientific discoveries and works of art would be lost. Children would not hear fairy tales and would not be able to play many games. And how could they learn the school curriculum without imagination? It's easier to say - deprive a person of fantasy and progress will stop! So imagination, fantasy are the highest and most necessary human ability. However, it is this ability that needs special care in terms of development. And it develops especially intensively at the age of 5 to 15 years. And if during this period the imagination is not specifically developed, subsequently a rapid decrease in the activity of this function occurs. Along with a decrease in the ability to fantasize, a person's personality becomes impoverished, the possibilities of creative thinking are reduced, and interest in art and science is extinguished.

The ability to create something new, unusual is laid down in childhood, through the development of such higher mental functions as thinking and imagination. It is their development that should be given the least attention in raising a child between the ages of five and twelve. Scientists call this period the most favorable for the development of imaginative thinking and imagination.

What is imagination? Imagination is an inherent only human ability to create new images by processing previous experience. Imagination is often called fantasy. With the help of imagination, we form an image of an object, situation, conditions that has never existed or does not exist at the moment.

When solving any mental problem, we use some kind of information. However, there are situations when the available information is not enough for an unambiguous decision. These are the so-called tasks of a high degree of uncertainty. Thinking in this case is almost powerless without the active work of the imagination. Imagination provides knowledge when the uncertainty of the situation is very high. This is the general meaning of the function of imagination in both children and adults. Now it becomes clear why the function of imagination is so intense in children from preschool to adolescence. Their own experience and the ability to objectively assess the world around them are insufficient: imagination and fantasy replace their lack of knowledge and experience and help to feel relatively confident in a complex and volatile world.

Imagination is the most important side of our life. If a person did not have imagination, then we would lose almost all scientific discoveries and works of art. Children would not hear fairy tales, they would not be able to assimilate the school curriculum.

Imagination is more important than knowledge
A. Einstein

Everything that mankind has achieved over the centuries in science, technology and culture has been achieved thanks to the imagination. Neither Tsiolkovsky, nor Yuri Gagarin, nor the first American cosmonauts on the moon would have been possible without the first dreamer who imagined himself flying like a bird. His jump from the bell tower with makeshift wings on his hands foreshadowed the space age of mankind. Russian Icarus was not alone. It is known that on his sketch of the first aircraft, Leonardo da Vinci wrote the prophetic words: “Man will grow wings for himself.” The renaissance artist's flying machine could indeed fly several feet, but the church labeled it "devil's instrument."
Thus, the collective imagination contributes to the rapid development of progress. I would especially like to note the importance of the imagination of creative individuals. Science fiction writers from all over the world have created an amazing country that is not on the geographical map, but it is marked in the soul of every person who knows how to dream. This is a FANTASTIC country. She lives by her own laws and regulations. All wishes come true and all dreams come true. But the land of Fantasy is not so surreal. Recall Jules Verne: submarines migrated from the area subordinate to him to the real world, and our scientists argue that the flying spacecraft drawn by the writer is very similar to the Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft. The collective world imagination also feeds the work of such remarkable science fiction writers as Ivan Efremov, Arkady and Boris Strugatsky.
We have published a whole “Library of Modern Fiction”. Even a cursory acquaintance with it will make the reader convinced of the desire of the authors to continue the tradition of scientific foresight. But even if there are no specific scientific discoveries in the works of modern science fiction writers, they still work for the progress of mankind. For example, the work of the Strugatskys “The Beetle in the Anthill” poses moral problems that, as it were, prepare humanity for psychological balance among ultra-modern devices on earth and in space. I believe that the problem is not only to form in thoughts what has not yet been in the physical world, but also in how a person will use this miracle of technology. Mistakes of this kind led to atomic explosions in Japan. Humanity still lives in fear of nuclear and other ultra-modern weapons of mass destruction.
The work of science fiction writers is a spontaneous protest against social relations that disfigure and cripple the human soul. It is for this reason that the greatest achievements of science and technology today are perceived by many people as an insurmountable evil, as a means of further enslavement of mankind. Writers create works in which fantasy is only a backdrop against which the tragedy of insoluble contradictions between a human and a cybernetic robot is played out.
For example, in the story of the Australian science fiction writer Lee Harding “Search”, a certain Johnston is looking for a corner of real nature outside the “giant cities that cover the entire planet with armor made of metal and plastic. After a long search, he manages to find a beautiful park. Birds, grass, the scent of flowers delight Even the caretaker lives in a wooden house there. The hero intends to stay there forever, but the caretaker dissuades him: "You must remember, Mr. Johnston, that you are part of an equation. A monstrous equation that helps municipal cybers keep the world process running smoothly." Ignoring the warning, Johnston stays in the park, picks a rose from a bush and is horrified to be convinced that the flower is synthetic. real.But all the blood flows out, and the hero does not die.And only the patrol robot kills him with a beam of ions.
I would like to hope that someday it will be impossible to use creative imagination against a person, but only to solve world problems. The American writer Robert Anthony said it well: “We should never think of a situation as hopeless or insoluble. The belief that we are on the path to self-destruction is simply a delusion.” I completely agree with the American writer. Our creative imagination is the key to our future.