Becoming a Professional is the sixth book in the ABC of Psychology series, intended for anyone interested in psychology. In it, the author introduces the reader to the basics of choosing a profession, with the entry of a young person into the workforce. But the main attention is paid to the evolution of man in the process of professional activity.
The manual also touches upon the problems of professional communication, introducing its types, techniques, ways of measuring and managing feelings. The book also includes psychological exercises and experiments on self-improvement, self-regulation of mental states, which will help the reader to better understand what happens to a person, his personality during the acquisition of professional skills.
How to become an adult
The book "How to Become an Adult" offered to the attention of readers is a continuation of the books in the ABC of Psychology series for schoolchildren.
Problems of physical and mental changes, relationships with the opposite sex, difficulties in learning and relationships with teachers, attempts to choose a profession and the first steps towards a career - these are the issues addressed in the book, which can be useful both for those who enter adulthood and those who interact with teenagers.
The book also includes psychological tests and exercises to improve the skills of self-knowledge, communication and self-regulation of mental states, which will help the reader to better understand the patterns of his development and entry into adulthood.
Classical social psychology
The textbook contains a wide range of problems of a socio-psychological nature, a lot of historical psychological information, undoubtedly useful for the general and professional erudition of students. Didactic materials are of practical interest: interesting control tasks, tests, topics of essays are selected, lists of recommended literature for independent study by students are compiled.
The manual is addressed to students and teachers of higher educational institutions.
Handbook of practical psychologist. Book 2
The second book of the textbook contains diagnostic techniques that are most often used by domestic psychologists when working with adults - teachers and parents.
The book also includes a set of corrective techniques and exercises necessary for the work of a psychologist in the educational field.
General psychology. Lecture course
The book in an accessible form introduces the reader to the most important psychological processes and phenomena.
It is the result of a long-term collaboration between teachers from the Rostov Pedagogical University and the Remontnensky District Department of Education, where for several years this course was taught in order to improve the psychological literacy of various teaching staff. Only thanks to the efforts of the head of the district department of education G.M. Nesterenko, the work came to its logical...
The first textbook provides a system of diagnostic and corrective methods that have become classic in the educational field and are used by most domestic school psychologists when working with children and adolescents.
The second book of the textbook contains diagnostic techniques that are most often used by domestic psychologists when working with adults - teachers and parents. The book also includes a set of corrective techniques and exercises necessary for the work of a psychologist in the educational field.
INTRODUCTION
Recently, a structural approach has become traditional in the work of child psychologists, within the framework of which personal and individual parameters, batteries of research methods, interpersonal relationships, etc. are considered. Attempts to consider mental properties as material and structural, more characteristic of the vulgar materialistic approach, were unsuccessful, since the inner world of the individual is not accessible to direct observation and can only be revealed through a scientific analysis of the systems to which a person belongs. Therefore, it is quite appropriate to consider the work of school psychologists through the prism of a systematic approach.
It is possible to single out two main signs of a systemic outlook: systemic terminology, which embodies the systemic constructions of thought, and the meaningful completeness of the display of an object as a system within the framework of this area of research. System terminology - system, element, structure, connection, etc. - provides a certain clarity and uniformity of the form of description, organizing the researcher's thought accordingly. However, this does not guarantee the system will work. In this regard, it is necessary to introduce a meaningful sign of consistency - meaningful completeness of the display of the object under study as a system. As noted by SL. Rubinshtein, human existence is inherent in multidimensionality and multilayeredness; in order to reveal all the richness of the inner world of a person and determine the characteristics of his psyche, it is necessary to consider the totality of systems that form the being of a person and are the foundations of his qualities.
According to the system approach, B.F. Lomov stressed, any phenomenon arises and exists within the framework of some (large enough) system of phenomena. At the same time, it is important that the connections between the phenomena that relate to a given system do not act as episodic and random interactions, but are essential conditions for the emergence, existence and development of each of them, and at the same time the system as a whole. A person's belonging to various systems is manifested in one way or another in his psychological qualities. The multiplicity of the foundations of these qualities gives rise to their diversity and versatility.
Since the activity of a psychologist is more focused on solving specific problems that students, their parents or teachers turn to him with, the main goal of the psychological service as a whole can be considered to be the promotion of mental health, educational interests and the disclosure of the individuality of a socializing personality, the correction of various kinds of difficulties. in its development. The systematic work of a psychologist is ensured as follows. Firstly, the psychologist considers the student's personality as a complex system with different directions of manifestations (from the individual's own internal activity to participation in various groups that have a certain influence on him). Secondly, the methodological tools used by the psychological service workers are also subject to the logic of a systematic approach and are aimed at identifying all aspects and qualities of the student in order to help his development.
In the most general form, diagnostic, consultative and corrective work with students must be carried out at five major levels.
- The psychophysiological level shows the formation of the components that make up the internal physiological and psychophysiological basis of all systems of a developing subject.
- The individual psychological level determines the development of the main psychological systems (cognitive, emotional, etc.) of the subject.
- The personal level expresses the specific features of the subject itself as an integral system, its difference from similar subjects at this stage of development.
- The microgroup level shows the features of the interaction of a developing subject as an integral system with other subjects and their associations.
- The social level determines the forms of interaction of the subject with wider social associations and society as a whole.
In addition, the system of work of the psychological service should include various types of work with the personnel of educational institutions (joint comprehensive research, consultations, seminars, etc.), aimed not only at improving the psychological competence of teachers, but also at overcoming the isolation of the school from the real life. The need for this form of work is also caused by the fact that to avoid turning the psychological service into an "ambulance" or "order desk" that performs only assigned tasks, so that the psychologist can control the psychological situation at school, determine the prospects for his development, the strategy and tactics of interaction with various student groups and individuals.
E.I. Horns
DESK BOOK OF PRACTICAL PSYCHOLOGIST
Tutorial
AT two books
Book 1
The system of work of a psychologist with children of different ages
2nd edition, revised and enlarged
Moscow
VLADOS
Reviewers:
A.O. Prokhorov, Doctor of Psychology (Kazan State Pedagogical University);
HELL. Alferov, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences (Rostov State Pedagogical University)
Rogov E.I.
P59 Handbook of a practical psychologist: Proc. allowance: In 2 books. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Guma-nit. ed. center VLADOS, 1999. - Book. 1: The system of work of a psychologist with children of different ages. - 384s: ill.
ISBN 5-691-00180-9. ISBN 5-691-00181-7(1).
The textbook provides a system of diagnostic and corrective methods that have become "classic" in the educational field and are used by most domestic school psychologists when working with children and adolescents.
The manual is intended for psychologists, social educators, psychiatrists and those who are interested in their activities.
ISBN 5-691-00180-9 ISBN 5-691-00181-7(1)
Rogov E.I., 1998
Humanitarian Publishing Center VLADOS, 1998
FOREWORD
Social activity, morality, the realization of individual abilities are the main tasks of education, the success of which depends largely on the direction and pace of reforms in school life. One of the problems facing teachers is the psychological and pedagogical dualism in relation to a developing personality - training and education is not always based on knowledge about the psychology of a child's development and the formation of his personality.
Each student has only one of his inherent features of cognitive activity, emotional life, will, character, each requires an individual approach, which the teacher, for various reasons, cannot always implement. Even specially developed psychological recommendations turn out to be ineffective due to existing professional barriers and the low quality of professional psychological training of teachers. The result of this situation was the certification of schools and teachers without taking into account the psychological characteristics of schoolchildren, their level of mental development.
Nevertheless, the practical psychology of education, in spite of everything, continues to develop. In various institutions, psychological services are springing up that optimistically take on the solution of the most complex problems.
The activity of a psychologist at school allows you to more thoroughly delve into school life, to contribute to the development of a growing personality as much as possible. However, this process is by no means smooth. Not all schools were able to include a psychologist on their staff due to economic reasons. Many problems have also accumulated in the structures designed to eliminate "psychological gaps" in the school. Thus, numerous faculties, accelerated courses for the training and retraining of child psychologists, giving only general theoretical information, do not form psycho-
© Rogov E.I., 2018
© Publishing House KnoRus LLC, 2018
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Chapter 1
Instead of an introduction: what is communication?
You cannot imagine yourself as a lonely Robinson on earth. Each of us lives and works among people. We go to visit, meet friends, study, do some common business with them, go in for sports, etc. In any situation, we, regardless of our desire, communicate with people: parents, peers, teachers, strangers.
Communication- a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, the perception and understanding of another person. It is carried out by symbolic means for the interaction of subjects, is caused by the needs of joint activities and is aimed at a significant change in the state, behavior and personal-semantic formations of the partner.
If we observe ourselves, we may well find that we:
Interacting with other people, we perceive and evaluate them;
Often with interest we perceive various rumors; we exchange experiences with our acquaintances and just people we meet; we experience the influence of other people on ourselves, changing our behavior, imitating them; we change our tastes and desires under the influence of fashion; when making decisions, in most cases, we take into account the opinions of others; we attribute people we see for the first time to a certain type; are under the influence of the Internet, television and other media; we easily and productively work with some people, and with others we have disagreements and conflicts; we feel bored when working alone, but in good company we will quickly and cheerfully complete the most difficult task.
We can say that a person can exist and develop only by communicating in a specific group of people surrounding him, where, in accordance with its requirements, he changes his thoughts and behavior, experiences any feelings under the influence of interaction with other members of the group. However, all this happens due to the fact that, by exchanging information and experiences with other people, getting to know them better, each of us, one way or another, participates in communication. Our great compatriot Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov pointed out this 240 years ago in his Russian Grammar: informs, then their whole existence is vain and useless. In a similar way, if each member of the human race could not explain his concepts to another, then we would not only be deprived of this concordant common deeds of the current, which is controlled by the combination of our thoughts, but hardly, if we were worse than wild animals ... ". Without a doubt, here M.V.
Lomonosov expressed a serious speculation about the future attention that people will pay to communication.
The psychology of communication explores such phenomena as: perception and understanding of each other by people; imitation, suggestion and persuasion; cohesion and conflict; collaboration and interpersonal relationships. With all the diversity of these psychological phenomena, the main source of their occurrence is the sphere of communication between people. These phenomena seem to reflect various forms of communication, depending on many factors.
Rice. 1.1. Relationships of the macro environment, micro environment of a small group
Without communication, we would not be able to become who we already are. Without communication, we would not be able to hear grandmother's tales, build a flying kite with dad, go on vacation with mom, go camping with friends, understand the teacher's explanation, and much more. Only in communication with other people does personal development occur. To paraphrase a well-known expression, one can say: "Tell me who you communicate with, and I will tell you who you are." Each of us acquires his main features through his personal experience of communication, through direct contacts in the family, school, on the street. This is what we call our microenvironment. Thanks to communication in the microenvironment and the contacts taking place here, each of us cognizes a wider social world and communicates with the rest of the world, i.e., experiences the impact of the macroenvironment. The macroenvironment is a society with its own science, culture, ideology, laws, social norms, etc. The meeting point of the micro- and macroenvironment, the line on which they interact, is a small group where each of us lives (Fig. 1.1) .
It is in small groups (family, class, on the street), communicating in their own microenvironment with its features, that each of us masters the specific manifestations of the macroenvironment: the experience and knowledge of previous and modern generations. The individual interacts with society not directly, but through his social circle. Henry Cloud believes that a person's social circle is not homogeneous and several levels can be distinguished in it (Fig. 1.2).
Interest in phenomena related to communication, the interaction of people, appeared long before the emergence of psychological science, in those days when a person met his own kind and he had questions: “How do I look in the eyes of another person?”, “What does he think of me ?”, “How does he evaluate?” and so on. Further, in the course of attempts to scientifically or by means of art to investigate or describe the phenomena generated by the meeting of two (or more) people, questions arise about what communication brings to each interlocutor, how each of them changes (develops or degrades) under the influence of the other.
Influence- the process and result of an individual changing the behavior of another person, his attitudes, intentions, ideas, assessments, etc. in the course of interaction with him. There is an interest in how and for what reason we have shyness, shyness, or, conversely, emancipation, "inspiration" under the influence of other people's attention to us? Why is one person embarrassed, "lost" in a large audience, unable to do what he usually easily succeeded in (singing, reading a poem), while the other, on the contrary, is able to show everything that he is capable of and even more, only in a large company, when standing in a circle of strangers? These questions exist as long as the person himself, who is formed as a person in the process of communicating with other people. As academician D.S. Likhachev: "Communicating, people create each other."
Rice. 1.2. Heterogeneity of the subject's social circle
Human communication is a complex process that resembles a kind of pyramid consisting of four faces. Each facet is important in its own way and at different moments of communication it can “flash” brighter than others, coming forward, hiding the rest. Thus, depending on the tasks, in communication we can exchange information (1), and interact with other people (2), and get to know them (3), and at the same time experience feelings (4) that arise during communication.
Communication is extremely diverse in its forms and types. Psychologists talk about direct and indirect, direct and indirect communication, verbal (verbal) and non-verbal, etc.
Verbal (from lat. verbalis- verbal) - directly related to sign and, above all, verbal (oral and written) material, as well as to the processes of operating with it.
Immediate(contact) communication indicates the presence of direct contact between the interlocutors and is historically the first form of communication between people with each other. On its basis, in the later periods of the development of civilization, various other types of communication arise.
mediated(distant) communication, when people may not see each other, could appear only after the invention of writing. Therefore, in cases of remoteness of communication participants from each other, written or technical devices come to their aid.
There are also interpersonal and mass communication.
interpersonal communication It is carried out with the help of means of speech and non-verbal influence, as a result of which psychological contact and certain relationships arise, it is associated with direct contacts of people in various groups. Mass communication- this is all the many connections and contacts of strangers in society. Mass communication also includes the communication of people using the Internet, radio, television, newspapers, magazines, i.e., using the media.
Looking closely at communication, we can distinguish between interpersonal and role-based communication. In the first case, we are talking about the usual communication of people (friendly, family, etc.), each of which is distinguished by its unique qualities, interests and abilities. In the course of communication, we get to know each other better, opening up and showing these qualities.
Role communication means the regulation of the content and means of communication, when, without knowing the identity of the interlocutor, they manage to know his social role, i.e., the participants act as carriers of certain roles (teacher - student, buyer - seller, etc.). A person does what his role prescribes to him. Therefore, it is not typical for a student to behave like a teacher or a policeman, and if a kindergarten teacher talks to children like a military leader, this will cause bewilderment. In role-playing communication, a person loses his individual qualities; in such cases, the actions taken by him are dictated by the role he plays.
Each of us has many roles. Let's take a young teacher. At school, she plays the role of a strict teacher, and the students are even afraid of her. Going out into the street, she becomes a pedestrian or a bus passenger. Coming home, she becomes a tender mother to her child or a loving daughter to her elderly parents. In the process of role-playing communication, we evaluate a person no longer as an individual, but as a robot entrusted with performing a certain job. In addition, a distinction is made between phatic, or meaningless, communication, which uses communicative means solely for the purpose of maintaining the very process of communication, and informative communication.
Informative communication aims to exchange information. In the course of such communication, something new is reported, listened to (read) for a given addressee. Communicating with other people, a person assimilates the knowledge accumulated by mankind, his experience, established laws and norms, values and methods of activity, is formed as a person. Without exaggeration, we can say that communication is the most important factor in the mental development of a person. It is in communication that mental processes, states and behavior of a person are born, exist and manifest.
According to its purpose, communication is multifunctional.
Can be distinguished six basic functions of communication.
1. The pragmatic function of communication is realized when people interact in the process of joint activities.
2. The formative function of communication manifests itself, as we have already noted above, in the process of human development and the formation of him as a person. Indeed, no one will deny that without communication with adults, he could turn from a helpless child into what he is now. It was the adults around us who taught us to speak, read, write, eat, drink, dress properly and generally behave in the company of other people. In the course of development, the external forms of communication between the child and the adult gradually pass into the internal plan. Thanks to this, we can mentally imagine the upcoming conversation and build it the way we need. If a student needs to ask his father for something, then he is unlikely to show him a diary with bad grades before that. Now communication begins to determine the independent external activity of the child.
Communication between a child and an adult is not only the transfer to the first of the sum of skills, abilities and knowledge that he mechanically, like a tape recorder, must learn. Here it is necessary to note the complex processes of mutual influences, enrichments and changes. We often actively and critically accept the words offered to us by strangers, compare them with what we already know, heard from others.
3. Confirmation function. Only in the course of communication with other people can we know, understand and assert ourselves in our own eyes. Wanting to be convinced of his recognition and his value, a person is looking for a foothold in other people. William James also noted that for a person "there is no more monstrous punishment than to be left in society to oneself and remain completely unnoticed." Sometimes psychologists call this state of a person "non-confirmation."
Unlike simple denial, which can be expressed by the words “You are wrong” or “You are bad” and involves a certain amount of confirmation (albeit with a negative assessment), non-confirmation means “You are not here”, “You do not exist”. It is known that the everyday experience of human communication is impossible without signs of confirmation. This includes acquaintances, greetings, naming, rendering various signs of attention. These actions are aimed at maintaining a person's "minimum confirmation", and hence good health.
4. The function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships. Communication for any person is invariably associated with the evaluation of other people and the establishment of certain emotional relationships - either positive or negative in their sign. Even the same person can evoke different attitudes in different situations. Let's remember a classmate who once refused to cheat us, or the same classmate who donated the coveted stamp for the collection. Of course, emotional interpersonal relationships are not all communication, but they permeate the entire system of relationships between people, often leaving their mark on business and even role-playing relationships.
5. The function of uniting-separating people. Thanks to communication, people establish contacts with each other, transfer the necessary information to each other, tune in to achieve common goals, intentions, tasks, uniting into a single whole, however, with limited communication, it becomes a cause of resentment, conflicts, and isolation of individuals.
6. Communication allows us to talk to ourselves. This is an intrapersonal function of communication. Thanks to the dialogue with ourselves, we make certain decisions, decide on important actions. Such “internal” communication can be considered as a universal way of human thinking.
Psychologists distinguish three main types of communication:
1) imperative;
2) manipulative;
3) dialogic.
imperative communication (authoritarian, directive) is distinguished by the desire of one of the communication partners to subjugate the other, the desire to control his behavior and thoughts, to force him to certain actions. Strict parents often resort to this type of communication, trying to limit their children in everything. They tell them when to get out of bed and when to go to bed, what to eat and not to drink, what to wear and how to talk to their acquaintances, etc., etc.
At the same time, the communication partner is considered as a machine that needs to be controlled, as a soulless object of influence, acts as a passive, “passive” side. The peculiarity of authoritarian influence is that the ultimate goal of communication - forcing a partner to do something is not hidden.
Authoritarianism(from lat. autoritas- influence, power) - a socio-psychological characteristic of a person, reflecting her desire to maximally subordinate partners in interaction and communication to her influence. They tell you directly and frankly what you must do. For example: “Clean up after yourself immediately!” As a means of imperative communication, orders, instructions, instructions, demands, threats, etc. are used.
However, in some professions this type of communication is used quite effectively. These include: relations in the army, where everything is determined by military regulations; relationship between superior and subordinate; all types of work in extreme conditions, under emergency circumstances, when there is no time for discussion and delay can lead to irreparable losses. But it is possible to single out those spheres of human relations where the use of the imperative is inappropriate. These are relations between friends, spouses, child-parent contacts, as well as the entire system of pedagogical relations.
manipulative communication is similar in its goals to the imperative one - to influence the communication partner. However, here the achievement of their intentions is carried out covertly. Like the imperative, manipulation seeks to gain control over the behavior and thoughts of another person. Most often, manipulations are found in the field of business and business relations. Manipulative communication is most fully described in the works of Dale Carnegie and his followers. The manipulative style of communication is also widespread in the field of advertising and propaganda.
We, without knowing it, often resort to such relationships. The easiest option to get your way is to appease a communication partner. If you, before asking your friend for something, give him a small gift, or say a compliment, then he will be more inclined to meet you halfway. Recall how younger students use good grades. They begin their appeal to their parents to let them go for a longer walk with the words: “And today I got five in Russian!”
It should be noted that the possession and use of means of manipulative influence in all areas of relationships can bring them some harm. Relationships built on love, friendship and mutual affection are most destroyed by manipulation. With a manipulative type of communication, we do not see a holistic unique personality in a partner. It becomes for us the bearer of certain properties and qualities that we “need” to use. Let's say we are friends with Vova only because everyone is afraid of him and he can be used to intimidate others.
Types of manipulators include:
Active manipulator seeks to influence others through active methods. At the same time, he, as a rule, uses his social position or rank: teacher, parent or boss. The main thing for such people is to be in charge and rule, everywhere and by all means.
passive manipulator, unlike the active one, on the contrary, pretends to be helpless, ignorant, incomprehensible, allowing others to think and work for him. Life philosophy - never cause irritation.
Competitive Manipulator refers to his life as a competition, an endless series of victories and defeats, and to himself - as himself, he assigns the role of a vigilant fighter. The people around him become rivals and even real or potential enemies. The philosophy of life is to win against everyone at any cost.
Indifferent manipulator demonstrates indifference, indifference, trying to avoid contacts, using both active and passive methods. The main focus is the avoidance of care and help.
Often a person who has chosen this type of relationship with others as the main one, as a result, often becomes its victim himself. Communicating with himself, he begins to evaluate himself in the same way as one of the chess pieces on the board, guided by false motives and goals, losing the core of his own life. As E. Shostrom notes, the manipulator is characterized by deceit and primitiveness of feelings, apathy towards life, a state of boredom, excessive self-control, cynicism and distrust of oneself and others. In general, the professions of a teacher and a psychologist can be attributed to the most prone to manipulative deviations. For example, in the course of teaching, the teacher uses elements of manipulation (to make the lesson more interesting, to puzzle students, to attract their attention, etc.). This often leads to the emergence in teachers of an unusually tenacious need to explain, teach, prove, which manifests itself even when this is not required.
The imperative and manipulative form of communication can be characterized as monologue communication. A person who considers another as an object of his influence, in fact, communicates with himself, with his goals and objectives, not seeing the true interlocutor, ignoring him. As A.A. Ukhtomsky, a person sees around him not people, but his "twins".
Dialogic communication is opposed to the authoritarian and manipulative type of communication between people. Dialogue communication is communication of equal partners. This is how we communicate with classmates, sports teammates, work colleagues, fellow travelers on the train, and so on.
Dialogue communication occurs only if a number of rules of relationship are observed.
Psychological attitude to the emotional state of the interlocutor and their own psychological state (following the principle of "here and now").
Do not evaluate the personality of the partner, full confidence in his intentions (principle of trust).
Perception of the interlocutor as an equal, having the right to their own opinions and decisions (principle of parity).
The focus of communication on common problems and unresolved issues (the principle of "problematization" of the content of communication).
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1 General psychology (course of lectures) Compiled by E.I. Rogov Moscow
2 LBC Russian Academy of Education (Southern Branch) Scientific and Methodological Council for Practical Psychology Reviewer: Doctor of Pedagogy A.D. ALFEROV General psychology: a course of lectures for the first stage of pedagogical education / Comp. E.I. Rogov. M.: Humanit. ed. center VLADOS, with. ISBN The book in an accessible form introduces the reader to the most important psychological processes and phenomena. It is the result of a long-term collaboration between teachers from the Rostov Pedagogical University and the Remontnensky District Department of Education, where for several years this course was taught in order to improve the psychological literacy of various teaching staff. Only thanks to the efforts of the head of the district department of education G.M. Nesterenko's work has come to its logical conclusion: the lectures have acquired a materialized form and can be used by anyone. In the rotaprint version, the lectures were successfully tested in the classrooms of schools, in pedagogical colleges, in the first years of pedagogical universities, and therefore fully justify their broad purpose. For all those who, by the nature of their activities, must be able to properly deal with people. BBK 88 Humanitarian Publishing ISBN Center VLADOS, 1997
3 GENERAL PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY Lecture 1 SUBJECT AND OBJECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY For centuries, man has been the subject of study by many and many generations of scientists. Mankind learns its own history, origin, biological nature, languages and customs, and in this knowledge of psychology a very special place belongs. Even the ancient sage said that there is no more interesting object for a person than another person, and he was not mistaken. At the basis of the development of psychology lies the ever-increasing interest in the nature of human existence, the conditions for its development and formation in human society, and the peculiarities of its interaction with other people. At present, it is impossible to carry out many types of activities in production, in science, medicine, art, teaching, in games and sports without knowledge and understanding of psychological patterns. The system of scientific knowledge about the laws of human development, its potentialities is necessary for the entire social development. However, a person is an object of complex research by means of various sciences, each of which has its own specific range of problems. When studying social processes in the humanities, it becomes necessary to take into account psychological factors. But each science differs from another in the peculiarities of its subject. Even SL. Rubinshtein in the book “Fundamentals of General Psychology” (1940) wrote: “The specific range of phenomena that psychology studies is distinguished clearly and clearly - these are our perceptions, feelings, thoughts, aspirations, intentions, desires, etc., i.e. e. everything that constitutes the inner content of our life and that, as an experience, seems to be directly given to us ... ". The first characteristic feature of the psychic belonging to the individual of his own immediate experiences is manifested only in direct sensation and is not acquired in any other way. From no description, no matter how bright and colorful it is,
4 4 General Problems of Psychology A blind person does not know the brilliance of the world, but the dull musicality of its sounds without their direct perception: no psychological treatise can replace a person who has not experienced love himself, the whole gamut of this feeling, does not convey the passion for struggle and the joy of creativity, in a word, everything, that one can only experience on their own. The difficulty in identifying the features of psychology as a science lies in the fact that they have long been recognized by the human mind as out of the ordinary phenomena. It is quite obvious that the perception of any real object is fundamentally different from the object itself. An example is the deeply rooted notion of the soul as a separate being separate from the body. Even primitive man knew that people and animals die, that a person sees dreams. In this regard, the belief arose that a person consists of two parts: tangible, i.e. body, and intangible, i.e. souls; while a person is alive, his soul is in the body, and when it leaves the body, the person dies. When a person sleeps, the soul leaves the body for a while and is transferred to some other place. Thus, long before mental processes, properties, states became the subject of scientific analysis, everyday psychological knowledge of people about each other was accumulating. A certain idea of the psyche gives a person and his personal life experience. Everyday psychological information, gleaned from social and personal experience, forms pre-scientific psychological knowledge, due to the need to understand another person in the process of joint work, "joint life, to correctly respond to his actions and deeds. This rather extensive knowledge can contribute to orientation in the behavior of people around, may be correct. But in general, they are devoid of systematicity, depth, evidence, we assimilate them not only through our own experience, but also from fiction, proverbs, sayings, fairy tales, legends, parables. It is in them that the origins of almost all psychological theories and branches of modern psychology. What is psychology as a science? What is the subject of its scientific knowledge? The answer to this question is not as simple as it seems at first glance. To answer it, it is necessary to turn to the history of psychological science, to the question of whether how at each stage of its development the pres statement about the subject of scientific knowledge in psychology. Psychology is both a very old and very young science. Having a thousand-year past, it is nevertheless all still in the future. Its existence as an independent scientific discipline is hardly
5 The subject and tasks of psychology 5 has a century, but the main problem has occupied philosophical thought since philosophy existed. A well-known psychologist of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. G. Ebbinghaus was able to say very briefly about psychology and precisely psychology has a huge prehistory and a very short history. History refers to that period in the study of the psyche, which was marked by a departure from philosophy, rapprochement with the natural sciences and the organization of its own experimental method. This happened in the last quarter of the 19th century, but the origins of psychology are lost in the mists of time. The very name of the subject, translated from ancient Greek, means that psychology is the science of the soul (psyche "soul", logos "science"). According to a very common idea, the first psychological views are connected with religious ideas. In reality, as the true history of science testifies, already the early ideas of the ancient Greek philosophers arise in the process of practical knowledge of man in close connection with the accumulation of the first knowledge and develop in the struggle of the emerging scientific thought against religion with its mythological ideas about the world in general, about the soul in particular. . The study, explanation of the soul is the first stage in the development of the subject of psychology. So, for the first time, psychology was defined as the science of the soul. But answering the question, what is the soul, was not so easy. In different historical epochs, scientists put different meanings into this word. The formation and development of scientific views on the essence of the psyche has always been associated with the solution of the main question of the philosophy of the relationship between matter and consciousness, material and spiritual substance. It was around the solution of this issue that two diametrically opposed philosophical trends arose: idealistic and materialistic. Representatives of idealistic philosophy considered the psyche as something primary, existing independently, independently of matter. The materialistic understanding of the psyche is expressed in the fact that the psyche is seen as a secondary phenomenon, derived from matter. Representatives of idealistic philosophy recognize the existence of a special spiritual principle, independent of matter, they consider mental activity as a manifestation of the material, incorporeal and immortal soul. And all material things and processes are interpreted only as our sensations and ideas, or as some mysterious discovery of some kind of “absolute spirit”, “world will”, “idea”.
6 6 General Problems of Psychology Idealism arose when people, not having correct ideas about the structure and functions of the body, thought that mental phenomena are the activity of a special, supernatural being of the soul and spirit, which allegedly instills in a person at the moment of birth and leaves him at the moment sleep and death. Initially, the soul was represented as a special subtle body or being living in different organs. When religion appeared, the soul began to be understood as a kind of double of the body, as an incorporeal and immortal spiritual entity associated with some kind of “other world”, where it lives forever, leaving a person. On this basis, various idealistic systems of philosophy arose, asserting that ideas, spirit, consciousness are primary, the beginning of everything that exists, and nature, matter are secondary, derivatives of the spirit, ideas, consciousness. The materialistic approach to understanding the human psyche was pushed aside for many centuries by idealistic philosophy, which considered the human psyche as a manifestation of his spiritual life, believing that it does not obey the same laws as all material nature. And no matter what metamorphoses the ideas about the soul underwent, the conviction remained unshakable that it is the driving principle of life. Only in the 17th century Rene Descartes started a new era in the development of psychological knowledge. He showed that not only the work of the internal organs, but also the behavior of the body, its interaction with other external bodies do not need a soul. His ideas had a particularly great influence on the further fate of psychological science. Descartes simultaneously introduced two concepts: reflex and consciousness. But in his teaching he sharply contrasts the soul and the body. He argues that there are two independent substances matter and spirit. Therefore, in the history of psychology, this doctrine was called "dualism" (from Latin dualis "dual"). From the point of view of dualists, the mental is not a function of the brain, its product, but exists, as it were, on its own, outside the brain, not depending on it in any way. In philosophy, this direction is called objective idealism. On the basis of dualistic teachings in the psychology of the XIX century. the idealistic theory of the so-called psychophysical parallelism (ie, asserting that the mental and the physical exist in parallel: independently of each other, but together) has become widespread. The main representatives of this trend in psychology are Wundt, Ebbinghaus, Spencer, Ribot, Binet, James and many others.
7 The subject and tasks of psychology 7 Around this time, a new idea of the subject of psychology arises. The ability to think, feel, desire began to be called consciousness. Thus, the psyche was equated with consciousness. The psychology of the soul has been replaced by the so-called psychology of consciousness. However, consciousness has long been understood as a phenomenon of a special kind, isolated from all other natural processes. Philosophers interpreted conscious life in different ways, considering it a manifestation of the divine mind or the result of subjective sensations, where they saw the simplest "elements" of which consciousness is built. However, all idealist philosophers were united by a common conviction that mental life is a manifestation of a special subjective world, cognizable only in self-observation and inaccessible either to objective scientific analysis or to causal explanation. This understanding has become very widespread, and the approach has become known as the introspective interpretation of consciousness. According to this tradition, the psychic is identified with consciousness. As a result of such an understanding, consciousness closed in on itself, which meant a complete separation of the mental from objective being and the subject itself. The development of psychology since its formation as an independent science in the second half of the 19th century. It was carried out in the continuous struggle of successive theories, which set themselves different goals and used different methods of research. However, almost all theories of the late XIX century. and some of the theories of the XX century. developed within the framework of the introspective psychology of consciousness. Characteristic of these theories is the limitation of the subject of psychological research to the area of conscious human experiences, considered in isolation from the surrounding reality and practical activities of people. The question of the relationship between consciousness and the brain is solved by these theories mainly from the standpoint of dualism. Within the framework of introspective psychology, the difference between theories was reduced to different characteristics of consciousness in terms of its structure, content, and degree of activity. One of the characteristics, as a rule, stood out as the leading one. On this basis, it is customary to single out five varieties of the idealistic psychology of consciousness: the theory of the elements of consciousness, the founders of W. Wundt and E. Titchener, the Würzburg psychological school also partially belongs here; the psychology of acts of consciousness, associated with the name of Franz Brentano; stream of consciousness theory, created by William James;
8 8 General problems of psychology gestalt psychology theory of phenomenal fields; Dilthey's descriptive psychology. Common to all these theories is that consciousness is put in place of a real person actively interacting with the outside world; in it, as it were, a real human being dissolves. All activity is reduced to the activity of consciousness. The main feature of all these theories lies in their characteristic descriptive approach to the psyche, and not in the explanatory one, although by that time the experimental method had already entered psychology. In 1879, Wundt organized the first experimental psychological laboratory in Leipzig. In the psychology of consciousness, an experiment also becomes possible, which consists in the fact that the researcher creates certain external conditions and observes how the processes proceed. However, these observations are of a specific nature, being observations of a person over himself, over his own internal states, feelings, thoughts, having received the name of the method of introspection (“looking inside”). Naturally, such an observation is devoid of the main scientific requirement of objectivity. As a result, at the beginning of the XX century. under the influence of demands for the development of scientific objective knowledge, on the one hand, and socio-economic requirements, on the other, a crisis of introspective psychology has emerged. The "psychology of consciousness" turned out to be powerless in the face of many practical tasks due to the development of the capitalist mode of production, which required the development of means to control human behavior. This led to the fact that in the second decade of the XX century. a new direction of psychology arose, whose representatives announced and a new subject of psychological science became not the psyche, not consciousness, but behavior, understood as a set of externally observed, mainly motor reactions of a person. This direction was called "behaviorism" (from the English behavior "behavior"). This is the third stage in the development of ideas about the subject of psychology. The founder of behaviorism J. Watson saw the task of psychology in the study of the behavior of a living being, adapting to its environment*. In just a decade, behaviorism has spread throughout the world and has become one of the most influential branches of psychological science. For more on behaviorism, see lecture 4.
9 The subject and tasks of psychology 9 So, first psychology is the science of the soul, then psychology is the science without a soul, and, finally, psychology is the science of the unconscious. This understanding of the subject of psychology very quickly led to the next crisis. Yes, when observing behavior, we really study objective facts, but such objectivity is deceptive, because behind each of our actions, behavioral acts are our thoughts, our feelings, our desires. And it is impossible to study behavior without studying thoughts, feelings, impulses. The reason for the crises in understanding the subject of psychology lies in the philosophical methodological positions on which these theories were built. Thus, the psychology of consciousness solved the main questions about the relationship between being and consciousness, between the objective and the subjective from the standpoint of idealism. Behaviorists solved the same problems from positions of vulgar materialism. For them, the mental did not differ from the material at all. Thus, incorrect initial philosophical positions blocked the way for psychology to define its subject. The way out of this impasse was opened by the philosophy of dialectical materialism. Dialectical materialism recognizes only one principle of everything that exists - matter, and regards the psyche, thinking, consciousness as secondary, derived from matter. Philosophical materialism is, therefore, a monistic doctrine, materialistic monism (from the Greek: "monos" is one). It is based on the data of science and practice and, as they develop, refines and deepens its conclusions. From the point of view of dialectical materialism, matter is primary; the psyche, consciousness is secondary, a reflection of objective reality by the brain. In this sense, the material (objects and phenomena of reality) and the ideal (their reflection in the form of sensations, thoughts, etc.) are opposite to each other. But if we keep in mind the physiological mechanism of reflection of reality by the brain, then the distinction between the ideal and the material is no longer absolute, but relative, since sensations, thoughts, feelings, etc. it is the activity of the material organ of the brain, the result of the transformation of the energy of external stimulus into a fact of consciousness. The psyche, consciousness are inseparable from the activity of the brain and cannot exist in any other way. Such an understanding of matter and the psyche, consciousness is fully consistent with the original position of dialectical materialism about the materiality of the world. There is no other beginning in the world, except for the eternally existing matter, which has
10 10 General problems of psychology of various properties and is in perpetual motion. At the same time, the movement of matter is not only a change of place, but also any change in it. This is the development of matter, the emergence of new properties in it. According to the definition of F. Engels, “movement, as applied to matter, is a change in general” [Dialectics of nature. M., S. 197]. The development of matter is a transition from its lower forms to higher ones, from lower forms of matter movement to higher ones. Initially, there was only inorganic matter, inanimate nature. At a certain stage in the development of matter, as a result of its long, many years of evolution, organic matter arose, a new form of the movement of matter arose, its new property, life. In the process of development of matter, plants, animals and, finally, man with his consciousness, the highest product of matter, appeared. In the system of categories of dialectical materialism, on which Russian psychology relies, the category of reflection is of fundamental importance. It is this category that reveals the most general and essential characteristic of the psyche: mental phenomena are considered as various forms and levels of subjective reflection of objective reality. The theory of reflection in psychology acts as a general methodological platform that allows you to understand the labyrinth of facts, concepts, concepts, determine the subject of psychological science, and develop research methods. What is the qualitative specificity of the mental as a property of organic matter? All matter has the property of reflection. Being a property of matter, a function of the brain, the psyche acts as a special form of reflection, as a prerequisite for the development of the psyche. Being a specific form of reflection, the psyche arose in the process of the development of matter, passing from its one form of movement to another. Having arisen naturally in the course of biological evolution, the psyche has become its most important factor. Due to reflection, wider diverse connections of the organism with the environment are provided. The inner mental life does not exist without the outer, physical. That is, the psyche, consciousness reflect the objective reality that exists outside and independently of it, this is a conscious being. It would be meaningless to talk about reflection if reality did not exist. Every mental act is also a piece of reality: not one or the other, but both. The peculiarity of mental
The subject and tasks of the psychology of the 11th lie precisely in the fact that it is both the real side of being and its reflection. So, the function of the psyche consists in reflecting the properties and connections of reality and in regulating human behavior and activity on this basis. The dialectical-materialist approach to the psyche shows that the psyche is not a closed world, completely cut off from reality and having nothing in common with it. What is the subject of scientific knowledge in psychology from the standpoint of dialectical materialism? These are, first of all, the concrete facts of mental life. Let's consider a simple example. Let us take as a fact of mental life a person's ability to accumulate individual experience, i.e. memory. But scientific psychology cannot confine itself to describing a psychological fact; it must be explained, i.e. reveal the laws to which these facts, these phenomena are subject. The main goal of any science is to reveal the objective laws that govern the processes and phenomena it studies. This is the goal of theoretical and experimental research. Scientific knowledge consists in the disclosure of essential, necessary, stable, recurring connections (relationships) between phenomena. Let's go back to our example. So, memory has its own laws of functioning. It is known that there are various types of memory, that, for example, the repetition of material contributes to memorization, and well-structured material is remembered easier and faster than incoherent. The task of revealing the laws of the psyche, revealing those connections and relationships that could be qualified as natural, is one of the most difficult in science. A strictly scientific approach requires not only to identify an objective law, but also to outline the scope of its operation, as well as the conditions under which it can only operate. Therefore, the subject of study in psychology, along with psychological facts, are psychological laws. But knowledge of regular connections does not in itself reveal the specific mechanisms through which regularity can manifest itself. The task of psychology includes, along with psychological facts and regularities, the establishment of the mechanisms of mental activity. And since the mechanisms involve the work of specific anatomical and physiological apparatuses that carry out one or another psychological process, psychology studies the nature and operation of these mechanisms together with other sciences. For example, it is known that in
12 12 General problems of psychology Long-term and short-term memory are based on various mechanisms. Thus, psychology is a science that studies the facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche. The reflex nature of the psyche Even in ancient times, natural scientists and doctors studying human anatomy suggested a connection between mental phenomena and the activity of the brain and considered mental illness as a result of a violation of its activity. An essential support for these views was the observation of patients with certain brain disorders as a result of a bruise, injury or disease. In such patients, as is known, sharp disturbances of mental activity are observed, vision, hearing, memory, thinking and speech suffer, voluntary movements are disturbed, etc. However, the establishment of a connection between mental activity and the activity of the brain was only the first step towards the scientific study of the psyche. These facts do not yet explain what physiological mechanisms underlie mental activity. We have already mentioned that the natural scientific development and justification of the reflex nature of all types of mental activity is a merit of Russian physiology, and above all of its two great representatives I.M. Sechenov () and I.P. Pavlov (). In his famous work "Reflexes of the Brain" (1863), Sechenov extended the reflex principle to all brain activity and, thus, to all human mental activity. He showed that "all acts of conscious and unconscious life, by their mode of origin, are reflexes." This was the first attempt at a reflex understanding of the psyche. Analyzing in detail the reflexes of the human brain, Sechenov identifies three main links in them: the initial link is external irritation and its transformation by the senses into a process of nervous excitation transmitted to the brain; the middle link is the processes of excitation and inhibition in the brain and the emergence on this basis of mental states (sensations, thoughts, feelings, etc.); the final link of external movements. At the same time, Sechenov emphasized that the middle link of the reflex with its mental element cannot be separated from the other two links (external irritation and response), which are its natural beginning and end. Therefore, all mental phenomena are an inseparable part of the entire reflex process. Sechenov's position on
13 The subject and tasks of psychology 13 the inseparable connection of all links of the reflex is important for the scientific understanding of mental activity. Mental activity cannot be considered in isolation either from external influences or from human actions. It cannot be only a subjective experience: if it were, psychic phenomena would have no real life significance. Consistently analyzing mental phenomena, Sechenov showed that they are all included in a holistic reflex act, in a holistic response of the body to environmental influences, regulated by the human brain. The reflex principle of mental activity allowed Sechenov to draw the most important conclusion for scientific psychology about the determinism, the causality of all actions and deeds of a person by external influences. He wrote: “The primary cause of every action always lies in external sensual excitement, because without it no thought is possible.” At the same time, Sechenov warned against a simplified understanding of the effects of external conditions. He repeatedly noted that not only external influences are important here, but also the totality of previous influences experienced by a person, all his past experience. Thus, I.M. Sechenov showed that it is unlawful to separate the brain link of the reflex from its natural beginning (impact on the sense organs) and end (reciprocal movement). What is the role of mental processes? It is the function of a signal or regulator that adjusts the action to changing conditions. The psychic is the regulator of response activity not in itself, but as a property, a function of the corresponding parts of the brain, where information about the outside world flows, where it is stored and processed. Mental phenomena are the responses of the brain to external (environment) and internal (the state of the body as a physiological system) influences. That is, mental phenomena are constant regulators of activity arising in response to stimuli that act now (sensation and perception) and were once in the past experience (memory), generalizing these effects or foreseeing the results they will lead to (thinking, imagination). ). Thus, I.M. Sechenov put forward the idea of the reflex nature of the psyche and mental regulation of activity. The reflex principle of activity received its development and experimental substantiation in the works of I.P. Pavlov and his school. I.P. Pavlov experimentally proved the correctness
14 14 General problems of the psychology of Sechenov's understanding of mental activity as a reflex activity of the brain, revealed its basic physiological laws, created a new field of science, the physiology of higher nervous activity, the doctrine of conditioned reflexes. Temporary connections are formed between the stimuli affecting the body and the body's responses. Their formation is the most important function of the cerebral cortex. For any kind of mental activity as brain activity, temporal neural connection is the main physiological mechanism. Any mental process cannot arise on its own, without the action of certain stimuli on the brain. The final result of any mental processes and any temporal connection is an outwardly revealed action as a response to this external influence. Mental activity is, therefore, a reflective, reflex activity of the brain, caused by the influence of objects and phenomena of reality. All these provisions reveal the mechanism of reflection of objective reality. Thus, the doctrine of higher nervous activity is the natural-science foundation for a materialistic understanding of mental phenomena. Recognition of the most important significance of temporary nervous connections as the physiological mechanism of any mental activity does not mean, however, the identification of mental phenomena with physiological ones. Mental activity is characterized not only by the physiological mechanism, but also by its content, i.e. what exactly is reflected by the brain in reality. The totality of I.P. Pavlov’s views on the patterns of regulation by the brain of the interaction of animals and humans with the external environment is called the doctrine of two signal systems. The image of an object is for the animal a signal of some kind of unconditioned stimulus, which leads to a change in behavior by the type of a conditioned reflex. As we have already said, a conditioned reflex is caused by the fact that some conditioned stimulus (for example, a light bulb) is combined with the action of an unconditioned stimulus (food), as a result of which a temporary nervous connection arises in the brain between two centers (visual and food) and two the animal's activities (visual and food) are combined. The lighting of the light bulb became a feeding signal, causing salivation. In their behavior, animals are guided by signals that were called by I.P. Pavlov signals of the first signaling system (“first signals”). All mental activity of animals is carried out at the level of the first signaling system.
15 The subject and tasks of psychology 1_5 In humans, the signals of the first signal system also play an important role, regulating and directing behavior (for example, a traffic light). But, unlike animals, along with the first signaling system, humans have a second signaling system. The signals of the second signaling system are yulova, i.e. second signals. With the help of words, the signals of the first signaling system can be replaced. The word can cause the same actions as the signals of the first signal system, i.e. the word is "signal signals". So, the psyche is a property of the brain. Sensation, thought, consciousness are the highest product of matter organized in a special way. The mental activity of the body is carried out through a variety of special bodily devices. Some of them perceive influences, others transform them into signals, build plans for behavior and control it, and others actuate muscles. All this complex work provides active orientation in the environment. Tasks of modern psychology At present, there is a rapid development of psychological science, due to the variety of theoretical and practical problems that confront it. The main task of psychology is to study the laws of mental activity in its development. Over the past decades, the front of psychological research has expanded significantly, new scientific directions and disciplines have appeared. The conceptual apparatus of psychological science has changed, new hypotheses and concepts are continuously emerging, and psychology is enriched with new empirical data. B. Flomov in the book “Methodological and theoretical problems of psychology”, characterizing the current state of science, notes that at present “there is a sharp increase in the need for further (and deeper) development of methodological problems of psychological science and its general theory” (p. 4) . The field of phenomena studied by psychology is enormous. It covers the processes, states and properties of a person, which have varying degrees of complexity from the elementary distinction of individual features of an object that affects the senses, to the struggle of personality motives. Some of these phenomena have already been studied quite well, while the description of others is reduced to a simple recording of observations. Many believe, and this should be especially noted, that a generalized and abstract description of the phenomena under study and their connections is already a theory. However, this theoretical work is not exhausted, it also includes
16 16 General problems of psychology delivery and integration of accumulated knowledge, their systematization and much more. Its ultimate goal is to reveal the essence of the phenomena being studied. In this regard, methodological problems arise. If theoretical research is based on a fuzzy methodological (philosophical) position, then there is a danger of substituting theoretical knowledge for empirical knowledge. In the cognition of the essence of mental phenomena, the most important role belongs to the categories of dialectical materialism. BF Lomov in the already mentioned book singled out the basic categories of psychological science, showed their systemic interconnection, the universality of each of them and, at the same time, their irreducibility to each other. He singled out the following basic categories of psychology: the category of reflection, the category of activity, the category of personality, the category of communication, as well as concepts that, in terms of the level of universality, can be equated to categories] these are the concepts of “social” and “biological”. Revealing the objective connections of social and natural properties of a person, the correlation of biological and social determinants in his development is one of the most difficult tasks of science. As is well known, in previous decades psychology was predominantly a theoretical (ideological) discipline. At present, her role in public life has changed significantly. It is increasingly becoming an area of special professional practice in the education system, industry, public administration, medicine, culture, sports, etc. The inclusion of psychological science in the solution of practical problems significantly changes the conditions for the development of its theory. Tasks, the solution of which requires psychological competence, arise in one form or another in all spheres of society, determined by the growing role of the so-called human factor. The “human factor” is understood as a wide range of socio-psychological, psychological and psycho-physiological properties that people possess and which are manifested in one way or another in their specific activities. We will not list here all the tasks currently set before psychology by social practice (their number is huge, because wherever there are people, there are tasks whose solution is associated with taking into account the “human factor”), we will only briefly dwell on the significance of psychology in understanding the development of the child's psyche. In all parts of the system of public education (preschool education, secondary, general education, secondary specialized education, higher education) there are problems addressed to psychology. Is-
17 The subject and tasks of psychology following almost the entire system of mental phenomena from elementary sensations to the mental properties of a person, aimed at revealing the objective laws to which they obey, is of paramount importance for creating a scientific base, solving a social problem, improving the organization of training and education. \ The society's awareness of the role of applied problems solved by psychological science led to the idea of creating an extensive psychological service in the organs of public education. At present, such a service is at the stage of its design and development and is intended to become a link between science and the practical application of its results. Modern psychology and its place in the system of sciences The understanding of the possibilities of using psychological data in other sciences largely depends on the place given to psychology in the system of sciences and, conversely, the understanding of the extent to which psychology is competent to use their results. The place allotted to psychology in the system of sciences in a given historical period clearly testified both to the level of development of psychological knowledge and to the general philosophical orientation of the classification scheme itself. It should be noted that in the history of the spiritual development of society, no branch of knowledge has changed its place in the system of sciences as often as psychology. At present, the non-linear classification proposed by academician B.M. Kedrov is considered the most generally accepted. It reflects the diversity of connections between the sciences, due to their subject closeness. The proposed scheme has the shape of a triangle, the vertices of which represent the natural, social and philosophical sciences. This situation is due to the real proximity of the subject and method of each of these main groups of sciences with the subject and method of psychology, oriented depending on the task in hand towards one of the vertices of the triangle. The most important function of psychology in the general system of scientific knowledge is that, synthesizing in a certain respect the achievements of a number of other areas of scientific knowledge, it is, according to B.F. Lomov, an integrator of all (or at least most) scientific disciplines, an object of study which is a person. The well-known domestic psychologist B.G. Ananiev most fully developed this issue, showing that psychology is designed to integrate data about a person at the level of specific scientific knowledge. 17
18 18 General problems of psychology Let us dwell in more detail on the description of the substantive characteristics of the connection between psychology and the named triangle of sciences. The main task of psychology is to study the laws of mental activity in its development. These laws reveal how the objective world is reflected in the human brain, how, because of this, his actions are regulated, mental activity develops, and the mental properties of the individual are formed. The psyche, as is known, is a reflection of objective reality, and therefore the study of psychological laws means, first of all, the establishment of the dependence of mental phenomena on the objective conditions of human life and activity. At the same time, any activity of people always naturally depends not only on the objective conditions of human life, but also on their correlation with subjective moments. Materialistic psychology provides a real scientific substantiation of the interaction of subjective and objective conditions, proceeding from the fact that the material basis of all mental phenomena, no matter how complex they may be, are systems of temporary connections in the cerebral cortex. Thanks to the formation and functioning of these connections, mental phenomena can influence a person's activity, regulate and direct his actions, and influence a person's reflection of objective reality. Thus, by establishing the regular dependence of mental phenomena on the objective conditions of human life and activity, psychology must also reveal the physiological mechanisms of reflection of these influences. Consequently, psychology must maintain the closest connection with physiology, and in particular with the physiology of higher nervous activity. Physiology, as is known, deals with the mechanisms that carry out certain functions of the body, and the physiology of higher nervous activity deals with the mechanisms of the nervous system, which ensure the "balancing" of the body with the environment. It is easy to see that knowledge of the role played in this process by the various "levels" of the nervous system, the laws of the functioning of the nervous tissue underlying excitation and inhibition, and those complex nerve formations through which analysis and synthesis proceeds, and nerve connections are closed, is completely it is necessary for a psychologist who has studied the main types of human mental activity not to be limited to their simple description, but to imagine what mechanisms these most complex forms of activity rely on, what apparatus they are carried out in, and in what systems they proceed. But knowledge of physiology is absolutely insufficient for mastering the fundamentals of psychological science.
19 The subject and tasks of psychology 19 The transformation of psychology into an independent science was facilitated by its union with all natural science, which began in the second half of the 19th century. This also includes the introduction of the experimental method into psychology (G. Fechner). As already mentioned, the natural science theory of psychological knowledge was the reflex theory (I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov, as well as the work of the largest Soviet physiologists: L.A. Orbeli, P. Kanokhin, K.M. .Krasnogorsky, A.A. Ukhtomsky, N. Bernstein, Ya.S. Beritashvili). Ch.Darwin's evolutionary ideas had a huge impact on the development of the main problems of modern psychology. They made it possible to reveal the role of the psyche in the adaptation of living beings to changing environmental conditions, to understand the origin of higher forms of mental activity from the lower ones. The psychologist must be quite clear about the differences in the existence of plants and animals. It is necessary to clearly understand what exactly changes in the conditions of life with the transition from the existence of unicellular organisms in a homogeneous introductory environment to the incomparably more complex forms of multicellular life, especially in the conditions of terrestrial existence, which makes immeasurably greater demands on active orientation in environmental conditions. It is necessary to master well the differences in the principles of existence, between the world of insects and higher vertebrates. Without such knowledge of the general biological principles of adaptation, a clear understanding of the characteristics of animal behavior is impossible, and any attempt to understand the complex forms of human mental activity will lose its biological basis. At the same time, one must always remember that the facts that constitute the subject matter of psychological science cannot in any way be reduced to the facts of biology. Of decisive importance for psychology is its connection with the social sciences. The study of processes and phenomena studied by history, economics, ethnography, sociology, art history, legal and other social sciences leads to the formulation of essentially psychological problems. Often, social processes and phenomena cannot be fully disclosed without involving knowledge about the mechanisms of individual and group behavior of people, the patterns of formation of stereotypes of behavior, habits, social attitudes and orientation, without studying moods, feelings, psychological climate, without studying psychological properties and characteristics. personality, her abilities, motives, character, interpersonal relationships, etc. In short: in the study of social processes, it becomes necessary to take into account psychological factors. Psychologists
20 2 0 General Problems Psychological factors in themselves do not determine social processes, and, on the contrary, they themselves can be understood only on the basis of an analysis of these processes. The main forms of human mental activity arise in the conditions of social history, proceed in the conditions of objective activity that has developed in history, and rely on those means that have been formed in the conditions of work, the use of tools and language. The foregoing makes it clear what enormous significance its connection with the social sciences has for psychology. If the decisive role in shaping the behavior of an animal is played by the biological conditions of existence, then the same role in shaping human behavior is played by the conditions of social history. Modern psychological science, which studies primarily specifically human forms of mental activity, cannot take a single step without taking into account the data obtained from the social sciences of historical materialism, which generalizes the basic laws of the development of society. Only careful consideration of the social conditions that shape human mental activity allows psychology to acquire a solid scientific foundation. And we should especially dwell on the connection between psychology and pedagogy. Of course, this connection has always existed, even KD Ushinsky said: "In order to comprehensively educate a person, he must be comprehensively studied." Here the practical significance of psychology is especially clearly seen. In the event that pedagogy is not based on knowledge about the nature of psychological phenomena, it turns into a simple set of pedagogical advice and recipes and ceases to be a true science that can help the teacher. In the development of all areas of pedagogy (general theory, didactics, particular methods, theory of education), problems arise that require psychological research. Knowledge of the patterns of the course of mental processes, dynamics, the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities, the nature of abilities and motives, the mental development of a person as a whole are essential for solving fundamental pedagogical problems, such as determining the content of education at different levels of education, developing the most effective methods of education and upbringing, etc. Currently, a lot of problems have accumulated that cause heated discussions on the following questions: what to teach a modern student? what and how to select from the huge mass of information that is accumulated by science for the school? It is psychology that must determine what are the possibilities and reserves of a person's mental development at different age levels and where their boundaries are.
21 The subject and tasks of psychology The need for psychology is no less acute when pedagogy turns to the problems of education. The purpose of education is the formation of a personality that meets the requirements of a developing society. And the achievement of this goal involves the study of the patterns of personality formation: its orientation, abilities, needs, worldview, etc. All of the above indicates that modern psychology is at the intersection of sciences. It occupies an intermediate position between the philosophical sciences, on the one hand, natural sciences, on the other, and social sciences, on the third. But it must be remembered that in all its connections with other sciences, psychology retains its subject, its theoretical principles, and its methods of investigating this subject. As a special branch of knowledge, psychology combines a number of special disciplines, the connections between which are by no means always on the surface (for example, psychophysiology and social psychology). But, despite their sometimes seeming "incompatibility", they all nevertheless belong to a single field of knowledge. After all, their common task is to study the essence of one and the same class of mental phenomena. The basis for the unification of all special psychological disciplines is general psychology, which experimentally and theoretically develops the main psychological problems. The main object of study of the entire system of psychological disciplines is the same. This is a person, his mental processes, states and properties. The principles of classification of branches of psychology and the structure of modern psychological science The features of the development of psychological knowledge depend not only on the connections of psychology with other sciences. They are no less determined by the growing needs of social practice. As you know, before psychology was predominantly a theoretical (ideological) discipline, now, while retaining its cognitive role, it is increasingly becoming an area of professional practice in industry, public administration, the education system, health care, culture, sports, etc. Thus, modern psychology is a very branched system of scientific disciplines that are at different stages of formation and are associated with different areas of practice. Usually the basic principle of classification is 21
22 22 General problems of psychology cation branches of psychology consider the principle of development of the psyche in the activity. Therefore, most often the classification of branches of psychology is based on various types of human activity. On this basis, the following branches of psychology are distinguished. Labor psychology studies the psychological characteristics of human labor activity, the psychological aspects of the scientific organization of labor, and has a number of sections that are, at the same time, independent branches of psychological science: engineering psychology, aviation psychology, and space psychology. Pedagogical psychology has as its subject the study of the psychological patterns of teaching and educating a person. Its sections include: the psychology of education, the psychology of education, as well as the psychology of the teacher and the psychology of educational work with abnormal children. Medical psychology studies the psychological aspects of the doctor's work and the behavior of the patient. It is subdivided into neuropsychology, which studies the correlation of mental phenomena with physiological brain structures; psychopharmacology, which studies the effect of medicinal substances on a person's mental activity; psychotherapy, which studies and uses means of mental influence to treat a patient; psychoprophylaxis and psychohygiene. Legal psychology considers psychological issues related to the implementation of the system of law. It also has a number of industries. Military psychology explores human behavior in combat conditions, the psychological aspects of the relationship between superiors and subordinates, methods of psychological propaganda and counter-propaganda, etc. It is necessary to single out the psychology of sports, trade, scientific and artistic creativity. The classification of branches of psychology can be based on the psychological aspects of development. In this case, the principle of development will be implemented. Now we will face the following series of branches of psychology: developmental psychology, which studies the ontogeny of various mental processes and psychological qualities of a person. It also has a number of branches: child psychology, adolescent psychology, youth psychology, adult psychology and geriatric psychology; psychology of abnormal development, or special psychology: oligophrenopsychology, surdopsychology, tiflopsychology;
23 The subject and tasks of psychology 2 3 comparative psychology explores the phylogenetic forms of mental life. And the last. The classification of branches of psychology can be based on the psychological aspects of the relationship between the individual and society. In this case, a number of branches of psychology will stand out, united by the concept of "social psychology". Social psychology studies mental phenomena that arise in the interaction of people in various organized and unorganized social groups. From all that has been said, one can imagine how wide the range of practical applications of psychology is. It is important to note that this panorama includes tasks of various scales, from the study of human perception of instrument readings to the study of mass mental phenomena. Psychological aspects can be identified in the global problems of our time (the struggle for peace, environmental protection, space exploration, etc.) and, in particular, in matters of everyday life of people (removal of emotional tension, overcoming interpersonal conflicts, etc.). And this is natural, since these problems somehow concern a person, and therefore, in this case, we are inevitably primarily interested in his psyche. It should be noted that general psychology occupies a special place among other branches of psychology. It is not a branch of psychological science that can be put on a par with others: it is a special name used to characterize the most general patterns revealed by psychology. The tasks of general psychology include the development of problems in the methodology and history of psychology, the theory and methods of studying the most general laws of the emergence, development and existence of mental phenomena. She studies cognitive and practical activities. The results of research in the field of general psychology are the fundamental basis for the development of all branches and sections of psychological science. In the course of general psychology, a scientific understanding of the general theoretical principles and the most important methods of psychology is given, and the basic scientific concepts of psychology are characterized. For convenience of consideration, these concepts are combined into three main categories: mental processes, mental states and mental properties, or features, of a person.
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