3.4. Economic life and economic culture of the Middle Ages The relative conservatism and stability of the medieval economy was largely determined by the dominance of the "spirit of traditionalism" in society. This was manifested in the legacy of earlier agrarian societies

An important role in the formation of economic thought in the Middle Ages was played by traditions, customs, religious worldview. The main sources of economic thought are legal codes and church sites.

General characteristics of the economic thought of the early and middle Middle Ages:

Thinking is little theological (religious) in nature, Islam and Christianity produced a great influence on the development of economic thought at that time;

Economic thought did not stand out as an independent branch of knowledge;

Economic thought was imbued with practicality (medieval treatises contain numerous specific economic advice, a variety of practical recommendations, but too few theoretical generalizations and attempts to comprehend economic processes and phenomena);

The economic ideas of the masses were reflected in various "heresies" and the economic demands of the peasant uprisings.

The main source of economic thought in the early Middle Ages were barbarian truths - records, mainly, of the customary law of the Germanic tribes of the late 5th - early 6th centuries. They were official or private collections of the customs of a given tribe. Often such customs were supplemented by royal acts.

The oldest collection of the rights of the Franks, who founded the Frankish state in Gaul - the Salic Franks - was the Salic Truth. it was concluded during the reign of Clovis. Then the collection was repeatedly supplemented and partially changed under the following kings.

Salic truth regulated internal communal relations. The Salic truth reflects the process of transformation of tribal, communal property into individual family, feudal private property. It reflected the process of the emergence of individual family property, the transformation of possessions into property, when the hereditary allotment turned into an allod, and fixed the beginning of the differentiation of society on the basis of the development of private land ownership.

Another source of economic thought was the legal acts of kings - laws, called capitulary. So, "Capitulary of the villa" (Law on the estate) of Charlemagne at the beginning of the IX century. gives an idea of ​​the organization and management of the feudal estate: the feudal economy was established within the seigniory estate, and the land belonged to the feudal lord; the land was divided into a domain, where the owner himself was in charge, and peasant allotments; on the estate, artisans had to produce handicraft products to meet the needs of the owner; sell products that were in excess and buy what was not produced in the estate; recorded all income and expenses; the task of the feudal estate was the production and supply of everything necessary for the royal court. These laws testify to the natural character of the economy, to the establishment of feudal relations.

The development of economic thought of the classical Middle Ages in Western Europe developed under the influence of the church. The most famous representative of the Catholic Church was the Italian Bishop Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274), he was already canonized in 1323, and in 1879 his teaching was proclaimed the only true philosophy of Catholicism.

Thomas Aquinas outlined his concept in the works "The Sum against the Gentiles", "The Sum of Theology", which summarized the canonical views of the Catholic Church. The leading place in these canons is occupied by economic views, based primarily on the works of Aristotle.

In his studies, Thomas Aquinas uses the scholastic method. First, the author puts forward any position, gives all the known arguments against this position, and then gives positive arguments, after which he gives his conclusions.

Thomas Aquinas considers the question of property, labor, trade, price, profit, interest. Man, according to Aquinas, must work to meet his needs. But an individual cannot satisfy his interests, so God made a division of labor and specialties. Work is an inalienable duty of the believer, but physical, hard work must be done by a slave, although by nature he is also a man. He did not condemn private property, and pointed out that property is an incentive to work and the society of owners always wants peace and order.

In the study of trade, Thomas Aquinas points out the existence of two types of exchange of goods: for one's own needs for the purpose of making a profit to provide oneself and one's family with means of subsistence and enrichment. Exchange presupposes the equality of the utility of things. For the first time he uses the concept of profit as a reward for risk. Aquinas points out that there are many different cases when it is not a sin to sell at a higher price than he bought: it is possible to improve the goods, storage costs, travel expenses. This is the wages of a merchant.

Puts forward the idea of ​​the existence of a fair price. Since each person belongs to the corresponding social group, she should receive for her product as much as necessary so that she can live in accordance with the place she occupies in the class hierarchy. So, a fair price is that which provides the usual income for a certain position in society after deducting all production costs.

An outstanding representative of medieval economic thought was the French scholar-monk Nicolas Orem (Oresme) (1323 - 1382 pp.). His views were set forth in the work "Treatise on the origin, nature, legal justification and change of money", in which he studied the economic category - money. According to him, money is a tool created by people to facilitate the exchange of goods. Nikola Pashem belongs to one of the first attempts to substantiate the metalistic theory of money. He pointed out that gold and silver became money due to their natural properties.

Economic thought of Ukraine during the Middle Ages. Written sources include chronicles, princely charters, agreements, records of secular and ecclesiastical law. The most famous written sources are "Russian Truth", which evolved over the course of the 11th - 12th centuries, "The Tale of Bygone Years" by Nestor the chronicler at the beginning. XII century., "Teaching children" Vladimir Monomakh early XII century.

"Russkaya Pravda" is the first code of laws of Russia containing information on property relations, on the protection of the rights of private property of feudal lords to land and dependent peasants, the organization of a large princely-boyar property, the property and social status of certain categories of the population, regulates trade relations, streamlines the system of debt obligations, limits usurious transactions.

Vladimir Monomakh's work Teaching Children reflects the main processes of Russia's economic and social life. Advice was given regarding state management of the economy based on moral principles: to take care of your state, about harmony, to restrain excessive violence and exploitation of the oppressed sections of the population, to promote the development of agriculture, handicrafts and trade.

The Tale of Bygone Years is a monumental literary document of Kievan Rus. The chronicle deals with the sources of income of the Kievan state: income from the economy, tribute and fees from the population, fines (judicial duty), trade duty and military booty. Tribute was collected in food, fur or money. The chronicle speaks of foreign trade relations, the development of the social division of labor in the ancient Russian state, the development of handicrafts and agriculture. The chronicler describes commodity-money relations.

So, under the influence of economic, social and political changes that took place in medieval Europe, economic thought was formed, developed and changed.

Basic terms and concepts

Society-mark. Allodium. Precarium. Benefice. Vassal. Senior. Serfdom. Investiture. Secularization. Immunity. Domain. Feud. Urbanization. Tithing. Crusades. internal colonization. Banal rights.

communal revolution. Censorship. Urbanization. Rent feud. Fencing. "Price scissors". Estates. Consulate. Craft shop. Hansa. Levantine trade. Rope society. "Life". Tribute. barbarian truth. Salic truth. "The capitulary of the villas". "Scholasticism". "Russian truth". "Teaching children". "The Tale of Bygone Years".

Issues for creative discussion

1. Analyze the ways of formation and forms of large land ownership in Western Europe in the 5th - 10th centuries.

2. Name the main production forms of the feudal economy.

3. Determine the patterns and features of the development of the feudal economy in France, England and Germany in the X - XV centuries.

4. What was the historical significance of the emergence and development of Western European cities in the genesis of the economy of the Middle Ages?

5. Give a comparative description of the development of crafts and trade in Western Europe X - XV centuries.

6. Analyze the functions of the craft workshops of the Middle Ages.

7. Analyze the process of development of feudal relations on the territory of Ukrainian lands during the Middle Ages.

8. Describe the forms and nature of trade on the territory of Ukraine during the Middle Ages.

9. What are the features of the economic thought of the Middle Ages.

10. Analyze the main legal documents of the Frankish state.

11. Describe the views of F. Aquinas.

12. Expand the main economic ideas of Russian thinkers.

essay topics

1. Craft shop of medieval Europe.

2. The influence of the Mongol-Tatar invasion on the socio-economic development of Ukrainian lands.

St. Petersburg State Polytechnic University

Faculty of Economics and Management

Department of "National Economics"

HOMEWORK

on the course: "History of economic doctrines"

on the topic: "Economic thought of the Middle Ages"

Completed:

Teacher:

Zaichenko I.M.

St. Petersburg

Introduction

Western Europe

Bibliography

Introduction

The medieval stage in the development of economic thought is associated with the era of feudalism, the chronological framework of which covers the period from the end of the 5th century. until the beginning of the 17th century. During this period, European nationalities are formed and centralized states are formed, material culture grows and spiritual culture becomes more complicated. Increasing unevenness in the development of economic thought in individual countries and regions. This reflects not only the influence of the ancient heritage, but also the features of the dominant socio-economic system.

The main moments of the genesis of the feudal mode of production were the transformation of free producers of material goods and slaves into feudally dependent peasants and the formation of large feudal land ownership. These processes were prepared by feudal tendencies that arose in the process of the decomposition of the primitive communal system and ancient society.

Gradually, four classes-estates took shape in feudal society: peasants, secular feudal lords-knights, church feudal clergymen, and townspeople-burghers. Each of these estates developed its own culture, its own ideology, and had its own economic ideas.

The clergy were the most organized class of feudal society. Possessing a strict hierarchy, it was also part of the secular system of vassalage. It was an open class of feudal society, which included not only the feudal lords, but also the most gifted representatives of other classes. The social sciences were in this period simple branches of theology and were interpreted from the standpoint of Holy Scripture. Therefore, quotations from the Bible acted as the main arguments in the dispute, and compilations from ancient texts - as a way of expressing one's own views. At the same time, the authors were not at all embarrassed that the past was described in terms of modernity, and ancient thinkers were attributed to medieval economic ideas, the feudal system of values. Biblical texts were widely used, for example, to condemn usury as an unnatural means of enrichment, as a phenomenon that destroys the human soul. Christian dogma became an important "theoretical help" for overcoming the contemptuous attitude towards work that was characteristic of antiquity. Work in the Middle Ages is increasingly seen not only as a punishment for sins, but also as a way to save humanity.

Issues of managing the patrimonial economy received a certain development in the works of the monks. The monasteries acted as the organizers of a large, often well-established agricultural and handicraft production, which was reflected, for example, in the Saint-Germain Poliptics, the Fulda Poliptics, and other works of this era.

The growing social inequality, the powerless position of the masses, the legal aspects of serfdom fix the legal monuments of the Middle Ages (“Salicheskaya Pravda”, “Byzantine Agricultural Law”, “Russian Pravda”, “Saxon Mirror”, etc.), which are also important sources of economic thought.

The economic views of the masses have come down to us in a religious shell. Christianity sanctified the ruling system, so the attacks on feudal exploitation could not but take the form of theological heresy. However, unlike the ruling class, the representatives of the masses appealed not to their contemporary, but to the original Christianity, the ideas of which were conveyed to them by the texts of Holy Scripture. Relying on them, Dolcino in Italy, Jan Hus in the Czech Republic not only used the ideas of equality preached by early Christianity, but also gave them an anti-feudal orientation. The economic demands formulated during the peasant wars under the leadership of Wat Tyler, Gyorgy Dozha, Stepan Razin and others also have an anti-feudal orientation.

The growth of productive forces, the deepening of the social division of labor contributed to the separation of handicrafts from agriculture, cities from the countryside. In the X-XIII centuries. formed a special social stratum of feudal society - the townspeople. Being a natural product of the feudal system, the burgher culture differed markedly from the culture of other classes of feudal society. In comparison with church and chivalric culture, it was more modest in nature, due to both economic and social reasons. The wealth of this class no longer depended on land ownership, but, above all, on its labor efforts. This predetermined the practical mindset and rational prudence of the city dweller. Compared with the culture of the peasant masses, urban culture was distinguished by a higher level. The civilization of the city dweller is manifested in the wider use of commodity-money relations for housekeeping, and in the greater dynamism of its development, in its more secular nature, and in the increasing role of literacy and written culture in general, and in the awakening of cognitive interest in the world around. The city dweller is more critical of himself and other classes of feudal society, he likes to laugh at the weaknesses and shortcomings of other classes and social groups.

The economic ideas of the medieval burghers were reflected in the guild charters and city law. The guild system was a kind of feudal organization of urban crafts. The guild foreman not only works himself, but also exploits the labor of apprentices and apprentices, but the purpose of his exploitation is more feudal than capitalist. The means to achieve this goal were also feudal. Guild charters carry out petty regulation of the production of each of the members of the corporation. They regulate the quality and quantity of output, the number of apprentices and apprentices, production technology, etc. All these measures are taken in order to limit competition both within the workshop itself and from the village and other non-guild crafts. This contributes to the unification of the craft, the spread of professional work skills, and the stabilization of the market, however, at the same time, it limits the capitalist potential of the guild system and inhibits the operation of the law of value. Therefore, in the future, shop charters began to impede economic development.

The workshops sought to establish monopoly conditions for the production and sale of their products on the local market. Merchant guilds also sought to create monopoly conditions for trade. The strengthening of the urban system, on the one hand, and the gradual transition of the peasants from corvee to natural, and later monetary quitrent, on the other, exacerbated the contradiction between the city and the countryside. “If in the Middle Ages the countryside exploits the city politically everywhere, where feudalism was not broken by the exclusive development of cities, as in Italy,” writes K. Marx in Capital, “then the city everywhere and without exception exploits the countryside economically by its monopoly prices, its system taxes, its guild system, its direct merchant fraud and its usury. The correlation of prices between urban handicrafts and rural agricultural goods reflected the clash of class interests. Therefore, it became relevant to develop the doctrine of “fair price”, that is, such a price, which, according to medieval researchers (Thomas Aquinas and others), would not only compensate for the costs of production and circulation, but also ensure the existence corresponding to each class.

The main feature of the development of economic thought in the medieval East is that it continued to develop the same problems as in antiquity. The continuity of the development of economic thought is explained, first of all, by the continuity of the socio-economic system, called by the founders of Marxism the system of rural communities or the Asian mode of production. It is characterized by: the preservation of the rural agricultural community as the basis of the socio-economic structure, the incompleteness of the processes of class formation, the leading role of state ownership of land, the absence of a domain economy, corvée and serfdom, cities as centers of crafts and internal trade. Cities arise here as military headquarters, places of religious pilgrimage and points of foreign trade. They concentrate the highest crafts serving the sophisticated interests of the ruling class. Therefore, the issues of governing the country, taxing the population and enriching the state are at the center of the economic thought of the medieval East. At the same time, scientists strive to propose a system of measures that, while satisfying the interests of the ruling class, would ensure the normal course of reproduction, peace and tranquility in the country.

The study of the monuments of the economic thought of the medieval East is associated not only with the difficulties of studying oriental languages ​​​​and comprehending complex religious systems (Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Legalism, Taoism, Islam). It is connected, first of all, with the very specific, symbolic nature of Eastern culture, which has a certain allegoricalness, "innuendo", requiring special counter spiritual work. In India, to this is added the multiplicity and parallelism of cultures associated with the existence of the caste system. However, the richness and complexity of the form here are often combined with the traditional content. Therefore, economic treatises are perceived as variations on the same theme, either acquiring more and more new motives, or returning to their original simplicity.
A feature of Chinese economic thought was the fact that its main author was a person either in public service or striving to get a position. The state official acts here as the main creator of spiritual culture. It is not surprising, therefore, that the leading theme of economic writings is still the issues of state administration, the promotion of agriculture as the main sphere of production and handicrafts and trade as complementary areas.

Islam had a great influence on the development of economic thought in the Middle East. Arabs in a number of areas of knowledge act as direct heirs of antiquity. However, from her spiritual world, they learned more rational than humanistic principles. Therefore, Muslim culture is closer to the ancient Eastern culture than to the ancient one. The writings of Muslim authors are related to ancient Eastern literature by their orientation towards traditional themes, imitation of predecessors, the didactic mood of literature, and love for "fundamental" works - a kind of encyclopedia of medieval knowledge. These writings often contain brilliant conjectures and judgments (for example, in the works of Ibn Khaldun), but, unfortunately, they do not receive further development in the works of subsequent scientists.

In the history of the formation of world spiritual culture, Russia has an important place. Unlike the peoples of the East, the Mediterranean (Greece, Rome), the Eastern Slavs do not have such an ancient cultural heritage. But already in the Middle Ages, Russia mastered vast areas, expanded the area of ​​​​agriculture, gave the world original works of art, and later Russia stood at the head of the social progress of mankind.

The social thought of the peoples of Russia is rooted in the history of Ancient Russia. Its peoples already in the IX century. formed the feudal Kievan state. Kievan Rus laid the foundation for statehood among the Eastern Slavs. Russia did not know slavery. The bulk of the population were peasants. Some of them were personally and economically dependent on large landowners (smerdy), others were independent and ran their households on communal land. Over time, the communal land became the property of the Grand Duke.

The economy of Kievan Rus was predominantly subsistence. After the adoption of Christianity (988-989), monastic and church land ownership began to take shape in Kievan Rus. Complex relationships arose between the secular power of the great princes, the boyars, who aspired to independence and independence, and the church, the monarchical power of Kyiv, between the ruling forces of the feudal hierarchy and enslaved farmers in the countryside and artisans in the cities. The interests of merchants were gradually woven into the fabric of class contradictions.

Russian economic thought is an organic component of the entire history of economic science, including consideration of both the general logic and methodology of the approach to the history of the formation and development of domestic economic thought, and the analysis of specific historical stages in its development, and the works of the most prominent domestic scientists.

A comparative study of the economic thought of feudal Europe, the medieval East and medieval Russia makes it possible to understand the reasons for their different historical destinies in modern times - the era of the formation and establishment of capitalism.

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Western Europe

In the 5th century n. e. Under the onslaught of the Germanic tribes, the slave-owning Western Roman Empire fell and barbarian kingdoms were formed on its territory. These states had an economic and political organization incomparably simpler than an empire, and the remnants of the tribal system were clearly manifested in it. The Romano-Germanic synthesis, which took place in a significant part of the territory of Western Europe, ultimately led to the emergence of large feudal land ownership and the main classes of medieval society - the feudal lords and peasants dependent on them.

It should be noted that not only the early, but even the developed Western European Middle Ages (XI-XVII centuries) did not leave us any serious theoretical works on economics. However, this does not mean that economic thought did not develop in the early Middle Ages. During this period, economic problems appeared that the ancient world did not know and that required their understanding.

The historical documents of the early Middle Ages reflected the problems associated with the decomposition of the community and the genesis of feudalism (the attitude towards the community and the enslavement of the peasantry, the economic organization of the early feudal patrimony, the economic possibilities of subsistence production, etc.). The most complete interpretation of these questions is contained in the sources relating to the Frankish kingdom.

Thus, the issue of attitude towards the community was reflected in the famous "Salic Truth" - the code of customary law of the Salic Franks, compiled under Clovis(481-511) and subsequently replenished with the capitularies of other kings. The compilers of the Salic Pravda recognize the supreme right of the community to arable land, defend the sovereignty of the community from the encroachment of alien elements.

At the same time, the compilers of Salich Pravda were forced to reckon with the fact that the community was decomposing and the development of a private economy on its lands. Therefore, this legal monument contains laws protecting the individual economy of the Franks (titles “On the theft of a hedge”, “On various thefts”, “On arson”, “On harm caused to a field or any fenced place”, etc.). Recognizing the existence of remnants of tribal relations (which is evidenced, in particular, by the title “On Reipus”), “Salicheskaya Pravda” at the same time reflected the process of their gradual elimination. Thus, the compilers included in this collection of laws the title "About a handful of land", according to which wealthy relatives could refuse to pay fines for their poor relatives. The title “About a person who wants to renounce kinship” allowed for the possibility of leaving a large family.

The most important source on the history of economic thought in the early Middle Ages is the Capitulary on Estates, published at the beginning of the 9th century. Charlemagne or his son Louis the Pious. According to this monument, one can judge the economic views and economic policy of the feudal estates. The compiler of the "Capitulary" proceeds from the fact that the owner of the estate is the monopoly owner of the land, and the estate farm should serve his "own needs". It is quite characteristic that the community is not mentioned in the "Capitulary", since by this time it had ceased to be a form of land ownership.

The ideal economy for the compiler of the "Capitulary" is subsistence farming. Formulating the principles of exemplary housekeeping, he ordered to collect dues in kind, to create reserves. Judging by the "Capitulary", the feudal lords believed that they should sell the surplus, and buy products that are not produced in the estate.

The economic policy of the Frankish kings was influenced by the strong influence of the church and the economic views of the papal curia and the episcopate. So, justifying the need to help the poor and at the same time pursuing their material interests, the church demanded that the parishioners pay tithes. This requirement was reflected in the legislation of Charlemagne (768-814). In the Saxon capitulary (last quarter of the 8th century), for example, he ordered "everyone, according to the command of God, to give churches and clergy a tenth of their property and earnings." The obligation of everyone to pay the church tithe was justified by the fact that "all Christians, without exception, must return to the Lord a part of what He has given to each."

Throughout the Middle Ages, the Church waged a hypocritical struggle against the charging of interest on loans. Already in the early Middle Ages, she managed to spread a negative attitude towards interest in society and achieve the issuance of laws prohibiting usury. The negative attitude of the royal power to the collection of interest was manifested, in particular, in the laws of Charlemagne. So one of them spoke about the prohibition “to give anything for the purpose of growth. Not only spiritual, but also secular Christians should not demand a loan of interest. According to the legislator, usury is unacceptable because the collection of interest "is a demand for what was not given ...", therefore "it would be most legal to take from the debtor only the size of the loan ...". Charlemagne declared that “he who, at the time of harvest or grape harvest, buys grain or wine, not for the sake of need, but out of greed, buys, for example, a measure for two deniers and waits for the time when he can sell it for four deniers or more ", receives "criminal profits".

The problems that are reflected in the sources on the history of economic thought of the Frankish kingdom are, to a greater or lesser extent, addressed in documents characterizing socio-economic relations in other Romanesque countries of Western Europe (in the Ostrogothic and Visigothic kingdoms, in the state of the Lombards).

The development of feudal relations in England was slower than in France, Italy and Spain. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms did not inherit the Roman forms of exploitation, as a result of which the community turned out to be more stable here. It is possible to judge economic views in the Anglo-Saxon period, first of all, by legal sources. The most important of them are the Sudebnik of the King of Kent. Ethelbert(beginning of the 7th century), "Truth" of the king Ine(c. 690), "The Truth" of the Wessex King Alfred(second half of the 9th century), as well as the writings of the monk and chronicler Troubles of the Hon.(672 or 673 - c. 735).

Anglo-Saxon sources reflected the process of social differentiation of the peasantry and the strengthening of royal power. Trying to disguise the fact that the royal power protected the interests of the feudal lords, Bede the Venerable put forward the idea that the kings were concerned about the welfare of the whole people. However, he was forced to recognize the division of society into rich and poor.

The sources of the Anglo-Saxon period also give an idea of ​​the attitude of the royal power to trade. On the one hand, the kings, considering trade as one of the main sources of income for the treasury, patronized trade operations, and on the other hand, they tried to regulate them.

The canonical doctrine, which was developed by church lawyers, interpreters of church law, had a great influence on the economic thought of the Middle Ages. Canonists also interpreted economic issues, often from the standpoint of ancient tradition, views Aristotle. The founder of the school of canonism is Augustine the Blessed(354 - 430). His main works are "On the Blessed Life" (386) and "Monologues" (387). He considered commercial and usurious capital, as well as excessive wealth, a sin. Money, according to Augustine, is only a means of facilitating and accelerating exchange transactions.

The economic thought of the classical Middle Ages developed on the basis of church law, and its ideas were systematically interpreted and developed in the treatise "The Sum of Theology" written by an Italian monk Thomas Aquinas (Aquinas) (1225-1274). In this treatise, he considered a number of issues relevant to his time. Based on the "dogmas of Aristotle", Thomas Aquinas justified the social inequality of people, defended private property, and idealized subsistence farming. But at the same time he broke with natural economic views and justified the exchange. His work reflects the specific issues of commodity production. The most important of these is the problem of "fair price". Thomas Aquinas considered the basis of exchange to be the equality of the benefits of exchanged things. The expression of this principle for him is the “fair price”, which he explained in the form of the “quantities of labor and costs” necessary for the manufacture of goods. There is a superficial resemblance to the labor theory of value here, but it is deceptive. The formulation of the problem of "fair price" by Aquinas was of an ethical and normative nature, was based on the class concept of justice. With this interpretation, the labor moment played a conditional role.

In his treatise, Thomas Aquinas considered other attributes of a commodity economy. In the interpretation of money, he adhered to the nominalist theory of their origin, recognized their necessity as a measure of value and a means of circulation. His attitude towards usury and trade suffered from inconsistency. On the one hand, he condemned usury, and on the other hand, he justified the decency of lending operations carried out by the church. He condemned trading for profit, but generally justified it. Cases when a thing can be sold for more than the price for which it was bought:

If there have been some improvements in things;

The owner suffered losses for transportation, storage;

Risk of loss of consumer qualities.

Thomas Aquinas was the first to introduce the term "Entrepreneurial risk".

Table II. Comparison of the views of early (Augustine Blessed) and late (Thomas Aquinas) canonists

Augustine the Blessed

Thomas Aquinas

Division of labor

Mental and physical types of labor are equivalent and should not affect the position of a person in society.

The division of people according to professions and estates is due to divine providence and the inclinations of people.

Wealth

Human labor creates wealth in the form of material goods, including gold and silver. Unearned accumulation of the latter (“artificial wealth”) is a sin

Gold and silver are seen as a source of increasing private property and "moderate wealth".

Exchange

The exchange is carried out according to the principle of proportionality and is an act of free will of people.

Exchange as a subjective process does not always ensure the equality of the benefit, since as a result of this act it happens that the thing "benefits one to the detriment of the other."

fair price

The value of the goods should be established in accordance with the labor and material costs in the process of its production on the principle of "fair price".

The cost principle of establishing a "fair price" is considered inaccurate, since it may not deliver the amount of money corresponding to its position in society to the seller and cause damage.

Money

Money is an artificial invention of people and necessary to facilitate and accelerate exchange operations in the market due to the "intrinsic value" of the coin.

The value of money (coins) in the domestic market should not be determined by the weight of the metals it contains, but at the discretion of the state.

Trading profit and usurious interest

Commercial profits and usurious interest derived from large commercial and loan operations become an end in themselves and therefore must be regarded as unpleasing and sinful phenomena.

The large incomes of merchants and usurers are only permissible when they are extracted by labor, are associated with transport and other costs, and also the risk that takes place in a decent activity.

Continuation
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In the first half of the XVI century. in Western and Central Europe, a broad social movement unfolded, anti-feudal in its socio-economic and political essence, religious (anti-Catholic) in its ideological form. Since the immediate goals of this movement were the "correction" of the official doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church, the transformation of church organization, the restructuring of the relationship between church and state, insofar as it began to be called the Reformation. Germany was the main focus of the European Reformation.

The supporters of the Reformation were divided into two camps. In one, the propertied elements of the opposition gathered - the mass of the lower nobility, the burghers, part of the secular princes, who hoped to enrich themselves through the confiscation of church property and sought to use the opportunity to win greater independence from the empire. All these elements, among which the burghers set the tone, wanted the implementation of rather modest, moderate reforms. In the other camp, the masses of the people united: peasants and plebeians. They put forward far-reaching demands and fought for the revolutionary reorganization of the world on the basis of social justice.

At the origins of the Reformation stood and the largest ideologist of its burgher wing was a German theologian Martin Luther(1483-1546). It was he who formulated those religious and political slogans that initially inspired and rallied practically all the champions of the Reformation in Germany.

One of the starting points of Lutheran teaching is the thesis that salvation is achieved solely by faith. Each believer is justified by it personally before God, becoming here, as it were, a priest to himself and, as a result, no longer needing the services of the Catholic Church (the idea of ​​“all priesthood”). The opportunity for believers to be internally religious, to lead a truly Christian way of life, is provided, according to M. Luther, by the secular order.

In general, the evolution of the activities and teachings of M. Luther took place in such a way that elements of burgher narrow-mindedness, narrow-class political utilitarianism, and religious fanaticism grew in them, which significantly hindered the further development of the Reformation.

Among the most prominent ideologists and influential figures of the Reformation was Jean Calvin(1509-1564). Having settled in Switzerland, he published there the theological treatise "Instruction in the Christian Faith" (1536). The core of Calvin's work is the dogma of divine predestination. According to J. Calvin, God predetermined some people to salvation and bliss, others to perdition. People are powerless to change the will of God, but they can guess about it by the way their life on earth develops. If their professional activity (God foretells it) is successful, they are pious and virtuous, hardworking and submissive to the authorities (established by God), then God favors them. From the dogma of absolute divine predestination for a true Calvinist, first of all, the duty arose to devote himself entirely to his profession, to be the most economical and diligent owner, to despise pleasures and extravagance.

The radical reform of the structure of the church carried out by J. Calvin also had a pro-bourgeois character. Church communities began to be headed by elders (presbyters), who were usually elected from among the richest laity, and preachers who did not have a special priestly rank, who performed religious functions as official duties.

A distinctive feature of the Calvinist doctrine is its cruel religious intolerance towards any other views and attitudes, especially towards peasant-plebeian heresies.

Calvinist ideology has played a prominent role in history. It significantly contributed to the accomplishment of the first bourgeois revolution in Western Europe - the revolution in the Netherlands and the establishment of a republic in this country. On its basis, republican parties arose in England, and above all in Scotland. Together with other ideological currents of the Reformation, Calvinism prepared that "thinking material" on the basis of which in the XVII-XVIII centuries. the classical political and legal worldview of the bourgeoisie took shape.

East

The economic ideas of the Arabs were inextricably linked with the changes that were taking place in Arabian society. In Arabia, feudal relations arose as a result of the disintegration of primitive communal relations in most of the peninsula and the crisis of the slave-owning system. In ancient times, in Arabia (in the south), there were states where slavery played a certain role. However, the bulk of the direct producers were represented by free community members who were engaged in agriculture based on artificial irrigation.

Features of the physical and geographical conditions of the Arabian Peninsula, the predominance of deserts and semi-deserts determined the existence and development of nomadic and distant pastoralism. Within the tribes there was a process of property stratification. During the migrations, many families settled in oases, establishing ownership of the land.

In Arabia, the transition to feudal production relations and the creation of a single state coincided with the emergence of a new monotheistic religion - Islam. Head of the first pan-Arab state Muhammad bore the rank of prophet, exercising both secular and spiritual authority. This combination of secular and spiritual principles left an imprint on the entire subsequent development of Muslim countries, on ideology, historiography, jurisprudence, economic thought, etc.

The economic thought of the Arabs in the period of the emergence of the early feudal state was reflected in the Koran and the biographies of Muhammad. The Koran (translated into Russian as "reading") contains Muhammad's sermons, his statements on certain issues in the period 610-632. These statements were recorded by his companions and after his death were brought together. The earliest surviving lists of the Koran date back to the turn of the 7th - 8th centuries.

Most often, Muhammad mentions the rich and the poor, addresses the problems of wealth and inequality, tries to explain inequality. However, the main idea is the divine origin of property and social inequality. It was Allah who allegedly gave “an advantage to one over the other in the lot of life.

In the Qur'an, land is declared to belong to God and not everyone can expect to receive it or retain land property. But the Qur'an affirms the principle of the inviolability of private property, emphasizing the inadmissibility of appropriating someone else's property, entering someone else's house "from the back" or entering without permission. Severe punishment threatened thieves; they were to cut off their hands "in recompense for what they had gained." Although Muhammad condemns the stingy, who love wealth, gold, silver, nevertheless, he shows great concern for the preservation of wealth, opposes wastefulness, excessive spending of funds, and calls for thrift. The faithful are advised not to eat “wealth among themselves in vain” and not to give it to the judges, for “it is criminal to eat part of the wealth of people”, but to give a relative “his due”, both the poor and the traveler.

All believers were obliged to spend part of their property "on the path of God", paying a cleansing alms. Charity in the understanding of the Koran is not an ordinary, voluntary charity. This is a kind of unified taxation of all those who converted to Islam, charity elevated to the level of a general religious and nationwide obligation.

The Qur'an repeatedly addresses the issue of usury. Mohammed in every possible way frightened usurers with retribution from Allah, he attributed the prohibition to take a high percentage to Allah.

As a result of the conquests (632 - c. 751), the Arabs created a vast empire, which included various lands and peoples. The initial regulations, adopted under Muhammad and recorded in the Koran, became the basis for the further development of legal and economic concepts. In addition, jurists turned to hadiths - legends about the actions and statements of Muhammad, in order to sanctify their actions or interpretations in his name. The collection and interpretation of hadith has become an important element in the development of both law and economic concepts. Islamic law "Sharia" (from the word "shar" - law) was formed on the basis of three sources: the Koran, hadiths and customary law.

One of the fundamental problems developed by Muslim law was the problem of property. Islamic law elaborated in detail the rules for taxing land.

In the caliphate from about the 9th century. landownership of Muslim charitable institutions, mosques, religious schools, etc. - waqfs. Each Muslim could transfer part of his land or other property to mosques and establish a waqf. In the final version, waqfs became inalienable and free from state tax.

Muslim jurists recognized the difference between the value of a commodity and the advertised price. The right of pre-emptive purchase of immovable property, the conclusion of agreements on pledges, the registration of trade partnerships based on trust and companies were developed in detail. Associations of merchants for conducting large trade operations were widespread throughout the Muslim world. At the conclusion of large transactions resorted to checks and bills. Cashless trade was beneficial to all participants in the transaction. By checks it was possible to receive cash throughout the territory of the Caliphate.

The greatest thinker of the period of the Caliphate, in whose works various economic problems were treated, was an outstanding jurist Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Ibrahim al-Ansari(731-798). He was a follower of the Hanafi law school. In 782, Abu Yusuf was appointed to the post of qadi (judge) in Baghdad and was the first to receive the title of supreme qadi. Abu Yusuf wrote several works, but the only book that has survived to this day is Kitab al-Kharaj (The Book of Taxes), which he compiled at the request of Caliph Harun ar-Rashid. The main goal pursued by Abu Yusuf was to give the caliph practical guidance in dealing with various issues related to economic policy. Abu Yusuf justified the transition of the state to a new system of taxation, different from the time of the conquests.

Arabic thinker Ibn Khaldun (Abu Zaid Abd ar-Rahman ibn Muhammad al-Khadrami) (1332-1406) was born in Tunisia, came from a noble family. In 1382, he left the Maghreb, leaving for Egypt, where for 20 years he took an active part in scientific and political life, tried to fight the corruption of the judicial apparatus, but to no avail. He opposed those feudal strata whose policies led to a general decline in the economy, to the stagnation of public life.

Ibn Khaldun strictly distinguished between commodities and wealth. He considered human labor to be the main source of income and wealth, for “any income is equivalent to the cost of human labor expended. Ibn Khaldun paid special attention to complex labor associated with operations of various types, emphasizing that "if there were no labor, there would be no object." He directly connected the development of crafts, arts and science with the growth of labor productivity.

According to Ibn Khaldun, price fluctuations for any commodity depended on supply and demand. Those who sell cheap goods suffer from low prices. However, "of all commodities, bread is the commodity for which a low price is desirable, for the need for it is universal."

Ibn Khaldun's thoughts on the value of goods are important. Trade, the act of sale, should be based on the principle of equal exchange, when equal amounts of labor expended are equated.

The great historical merit of Ibn Khaldun lies in the fact that he put forward the concept of value, ahead of all thinkers of antiquity of his time. For him, “the greater part of what a person accumulates and from which he directly benefits is equivalent to the value of human labor.” Everything that a person "acquires in the form of wealth - if these are handicrafts - is equivalent to the value of the labor invested in it", and "the value of income is determined by the labor injected, the place that this product occupies among other types of products, and its necessity for people" . In this case, for Ibn Khaldun, the equalization of goods acted as a form of equalization of labor. However, he did not establish the difference between value and price. The cost of goods also included the cost of raw materials, means of labor, the cost of labor of producers of intermediate goods. As Ibn Khaldun wrote, some crafts “include the work of other crafts; thus, carpentry uses wood products, weaving uses yarn, and thus labor in both these crafts is greater and its cost is higher. If objects are (created) by non-handicraft labor, then their value must include the value of labor, due to the expenditure of which they were made, because if there were no labor, there would be no object. However, Ibn Khaldun was unable to reveal the mechanism of the simultaneous creation of new value and the inclusion in it of already existing value created by the labor of other people.

In the works of Ibn Khaldun, the problem of money occupies an important place. He emphasizes that money is the basis of income, savings and treasures, and also acts as a measure of value. Ibn Khaldun advocates the circulation of full-fledged money in the state and denounces the alchemists who tried to artificially obtain gold. He denounced not only counterfeiters, but also opposed the rulers, who repeatedly officially reduced the content of gold and silver in coins.

Rus

During the period of decomposition of the primitive community among the Eastern Slavs, which fell on the 4th-6th centuries, the dominance of arable farming and settled cattle breeding gradually becomes more and more noticeable. Crafts and commodity exchange are gaining more development. From the 6th c. Large landowners own fortified dwellings. The labor of servants is widely used , captured during the wars, acquired as a result of the purchase or enslaved. In the IX-XII centuries. the process of enslavement, enslavement of smerds (peasants) by landowners intensified. While the bulk of rural workers were servants and purchases (obliged to process the debt taken - “kupu”), labor rent (corvée) prevailed. As the communal smerds are included in the system of feudal exploitation, rent in products (natural quitrent) begins to play an increasingly important role, by the 11th century. became predominant. And the boyar-patrimony himself, the hereditary owner of the land, acquires the right to judge dependent people and manage them.

Continuation
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In the IX-XI centuries. Eastern Slavs are united in the ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus. It is clear that the tops of society, its ruling class of feudal lords, needed a strong state. It was it that ensured the resolution of internal and external problems, the maintenance of obedience to the exploited masses, the protection of borders, the expansion of territory, and the development of international trade.

Russia of this period is one of the powerful and authoritative states of Europe. The steady growth of productive forces was accompanied by a further division of labor and the growth of cities (Kyiv, Chernigov, Novgorod, Pereslavl, etc.), and the development of handicrafts. Cities became centers of trade and cultural ties.

Economic thought has not yet become an independent branch of ideology. But it was already an integral part of social thought. Treaties of princes, letters and annals, church literature and folklore, to one degree or another, illuminate the economic life, life and economic policy of the Kyiv princes. Ancient chronicles give a fairly complete picture of tax and trade policy, the nature of agriculture and the social status of the population.

To understand the specifics of the development of economic thought at the earliest stage of Russian history, a very valuable source, the first ancient Russian code of laws, is Russkaya Pravda: a kind of code of feudal law of the 30s. 11th century, active until the 15th century.

Russkaya Pravda reflected the practical level reached by economic thought by that time. Fixed the process of feudalization of the state, consolidated feudal exploitation. She gave a legal definition of subsistence farming, property relations, protection of the property rights of the feudal nobility to serfs, land, the right to levy taxes, natural duties. It contained the norms of trade and protection of the interests of Russian merchants, mentioned "trade" (domestic market), "guest" (foreign trade), etc.

Although Russkaya Pravda is attributed Yaroslav the Wise(1019-1054), many of its articles and even sections were adopted after the death of the prince. In fact, only the first 17 articles of the legal monument belong to him.

Acute struggle between smerds and feudal lords, popular uprisings of the late 60-70s. 11th century They demanded that Russkaya Pravda be supplemented with a number of articles called Pravda of the Yaroslavichs. The main meaning of this part of the code is the protection of the property of the feudal lord and his patrimony. “The Truth of the Yaroslavichs” tells about the structure of the patrimony itself with the center in the princely or boyar court with their mansions, houses of close associates, stables, barnyard. An ognischanin (“fire”-house) ruled the patrimony, the princely entrance was in charge of collecting taxes.

The main wealth of the patrimony is the land on which serfs, serfs, and servants worked. The princely boundary was guarded with an extremely high fine. The management of rural work was entrusted to the ratai (arable) and village elders, who controlled the work of serfs and serfs, respectively. Craftsmen supplemented the number of patrimonial workers.

"Pravda Yaroslavichi" canceled the blood feud. However, the interval in payment for the murder of various categories of the population increased noticeably. This, of course, reflected the role of the feudal state in protecting the life and property of the feudal lords.

The legal consolidation of the right to inherit lands that were received “from the father” (patrimony) at the congress of princes in 1097 in the city of Lyubech actually became the beginning of the process of feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus and a new stage in the development of socio-economic thought. At the congress, the "Truth of the Yaroslavichs" was approved.

At the beginning of the XII century. A popular uprising broke out in Kyiv. For four days, the courts of princely rulers, large feudal lords and usurers were burned and destroyed.

He was called to the throne Vladimir Monomakh(1113-1125). A certain concession to the masses was the "Charter of Vladimir Monomakh" - another part of the "Russian Truth". The charter streamlined the collection of interest by usurers, improved the legal status of the merchants, and regulated the entry into servitude.

The “Charter on cuts” (interest) of this time fixed a somewhat underestimated, in comparison with the previously used, ruinous, amount of interest to usurers on loans granted. This determined the legal basis for credit operations and improved the position of the merchants. Thus, one who borrowed from 50% per annum is obliged to pay this interest only for two years, and in the third year he becomes free from any debt.

The struggle against feudal oppression also found expression in "urban heresies". So, in the XIV-XV centuries. in Novgorod and Pskov, among the urban artisans "strigolnikov" (cloth makers), a trend arose that opposed not only the exactions of the clergy, but also social inequality in general.

The feudal civil strife, which extremely weakened the Russian state, greatly contributed to the Mongol-Tatar domination of the XII-late XV centuries. The country was subjected to a significant material and moral test. Before the Tatar-Mongol yoke, Russian economic thought was the most progressive. After the overthrow of the Golden Horde, Russia lagged behind Europe by the 2nd century in its development. The desire for the political centralization of the country was necessary and obvious to all sections of Russian society. The center of the association was Moscow of the period Ivan Kalita(1325-1340).

The economic thought of this difficult stage reflected the desire of the Moscow princes to unite, subjugate to themselves an increasing number of feudal, boyar, monastic and church destinies, as well as the process of further enslavement of the peasants.

At IvanIII(1462-1505) the formation of the state under the rule of the Moscow princes was basically completed. For a century, the territory of the Moscow state has increased by more than 30 times.

In close connection with the struggle for the unification of the country was the formation of landownership. In the second half of the XV century. Ivan III widely carried out the provision of land to the feudal lord on condition of service to the sovereign and inheritance exclusively together with the service. Thus, the expansion of the estate system created the prerequisites for the enslavement of the peasants.

And in 1497 the Sudebnik was published - the first all-Russian collection of laws. His exit legally formalized the system of centralized state power, the command form of state administration. Sudebnik strengthened the enslavement of the village, giving the peasants a period of refusal from landowners - one week before and one after St. George's Day (November 26), when it was possible to move from one owner to another. At the same time, the peasant was obliged to pay the feudal lord a certain amount of "elderly", that is, the amount of money for using the yard (outbuildings and housing).

The emergence of a centralized state headed by Moscow princes, the elimination of feudal fragmentation revived the economic and political life of the country. Expanded trade and craft town planning. The mining industry and cannon casting developed. International trade relations were established.

Economic thought in the first half of the 16th century. - the threshold of the reforms of the 50s - especially manifested itself in the works of a talented publicist of that time, a nobleman Ivan Semenovich Peresvetov. In the works written by him, the program of transformations proposed by IvanIVGrozny.

Speaking in favor of a centralized state, I. Peresvetov, in his own way, breaks with the isolation of a subsistence economy. His proposals on the transfer of governors, judges, and the service nobility to salaries and on the surrender of all income and taxes to the treasury, of course, gave scope for the development of commodity-money relations, eliminated the obstacles facing the formation of an all-Russian market. Subsequently, Ivan IV heeded the advice of I. Peresvetov. In fact, the principles of his economic policy were focused on strengthening the unity of the Russian state, strengthening the autocratic power of the tsar, and completing the feudalization of the countryside.

Among the church literature that defended the interests of the local nobility, the works of the former priest of the Moscow Palace Church are of known interest. Yermolai-Erazma(mid-16th century). Most of his works are devoted to theology and morality, but they also raised social issues. He was an opponent of boyar centrifugal tendencies aimed at weakening the unity of the Russian state. At the same time, Erasmus advocated the independence of the church from the state, proving the superiority of spiritual power over royal power. Moral condemnation slips in his views on wealth, the source of enrichment is seen in the appropriation of other people's labor by feudal lords. Erasmus sharply condemned the enrichment of merchants, usurers. The religious terminology of Erasmus' reasoning did not exclude his sympathy for the peasants, his intention to weaken the feudal yoke lying on them.

In his work “The ruler and land surveying by the benevolent tsar”, which is the first special economic and political treatise in Russia, he gave advice to the tsar: how to be guided in governing the state, how to take into account and measure the land. His recommendations were aimed at reducing and legislatively establishing the size of the duties of the peasants (in order to put an end to the arbitrariness of the feudal lords), approving a certain procedure for the receipt of funds in the royal treasury, streamlining the yam duties, and changing the land measurement system. Ermolai-Erasmus believed that a peasant dependent on a feudal landowner should give him only 1/5 of the natural product he extracts and at the same time should be exempted from any monetary payments, both to the landowner and to the royal treasury. To obtain the funds needed by the sovereign, he proposed to allocate a certain amount of land in different parts of the country, cultivating which the peasants, dependent on the sovereign, should also give 1/5 of the crop to the royal treasury. This was much less than the peasants paid in the middle of the 16th century. landowners in the form of dues. Remaining in the positions of a defender of natural economy, Erasmus at the same time assumed that the landowners and the king would have the money they needed by selling the products received from the peasants in the market to the city dwellers. Offering to free the peasants from the yam duty, he wanted to assign it to the urban merchants who grow rich in the sale of goods. But the merchants of the cities should be exempt, in his opinion, from duties and other payments. Of course, the importance of these measures should not be overestimated. They did not abolish feudal oppression, but they could nevertheless reduce the severity of exploitation and eliminate its extremes.

The reform of the unit of measurement of land, proposed by Erasmus, also pursued the goal of removing the burdensome expenses from the peasants associated with the work of the royal surveyors. Interesting considerations were expressed by Erasmus in relation to endowing the nobles with land and peasants. He recommended interpreting this endowment only as material support for the service of the nobles to the state, tying the local nobility to the sovereign, and the highest allotment of land should not be eight times higher than the lowest. Yermolai-Erasmus understood the requirements of the time, since the estates and estates were shrinking. His proposals were contrary to the interests of the boyars. Erasmus bypassed the issue of monastic land ownership. It was his tacit support for the monasteries.

Although Yermolai-Erasmus condemned the large feudal lords having huge land holdings and wealth, his economic views did not go beyond serf relations. He considered, for example, the feudal exploitation of serfs and their performance of duties in favor of the state as a normal phenomenon. In the interpretation of a number of economic problems, Erasmus was a realist, and sometimes a utopian, especially in projects to protect the interests of the peasantry. It was impossible to reconcile the economic and political interests of the nobles and peasants, for they were class antagonistic in nature. Erasmus did not understand this. It cannot be definitely stated that Ivan the Terrible was guided in his policy by the ideas of Erasmus, but nevertheless, some of the tsar's economic reforms (expansion of the local system) are in tune with his projects. Erasmus acted as the ideologist of the local nobility and created works that are an original monument of Russian economic thought. Noteworthy are the principles of the economic policy of Ivan the Terrible (1547-1584), aimed at completing the feudalization of the countryside, strengthening the unity of the Russian state, and strengthening the autocratic power of the tsar.

The compilers of the new code of laws - the Sudebnik of 1550 - took the Sudebnik of Ivan III as a basis and made changes to it: the right of the peasants to go on St. George's Day was confirmed, the payment for the "elderly" was increased, the right to collect trade duties was transferred to the state. With the formation of a centralized state, a system of nationwide taxes and duties took shape, the main burden of which fell on the shoulders of the peasants.

In the system of economic measures of Ivan IV, the reform of large land ownership stands out. The main point was to change the ratio of its forms. The boyar aristocracy was weakened, and the position of the service nobility, dependent on the tsar, was strengthened. In 1565-1584. the oprichnina (part of the boyar lands) was introduced, the owners of which were the formed army, distinguished by its cruelty not only to the boyars, but also to the broad masses of the urban and rural population.

The state created by Ivan the Terrible preserved the established traditions under his closest successors - Fyodor Ivanovich(1584-1594) and Boris Godunov (1598-1605).

Continuation
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At the end of the XVI century. taking into account the interests of the feudal lords, “reserved summers” are introduced (the prohibition of St. George’s day in certain years), scribe, sentinel and boundary books are compiled (the entire population was included in special books and the exact belonging of the peasant to his owner was established). In 1597, a decree was issued on a five-year term for the investigation of fugitive peasants. Kholops were assigned to their master for life.

Not only feudal lords, but also officials and merchants became owners.

The path to the subsequent development of economic thought and new transformations of the 17th - early 18th centuries was prepared.

conclusions

The formation of economic views is influenced by religion.

Class division is ordained by God.

Development of economic theory as a basis for strengthening the position of feudal lords in the conditions of subsistence farming.

Criticism of the progressive development of trade and money relations.

Table II. Features of the economic thought of the Middle Ages

Comparison criterion

Western Europe

Sources of economic thought

Ideas of Augustine the Blessed (354 - 430) and Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274)

Quran (610 - 632),

teachings of Ibn Khaldun (1332 -1406)

"Russian Truth" (XII - XIII centuries),

I. S. Peresvetov (late 15th - early 16th century)

The device of the economy

agricultural holding

India, China - agricultural economy, Arab states - nomads

agricultural holding

Attitude to the class division of society

Positive. Strong social differentiation

Attitude towards usury

negative

attitude towards wealth

Too much wealth is a sin

Against the greedy accumulation of wealth

Moral condemnation

Attitude towards work

Mental work equals physical

Main source of income and wealth

Source of livelihood

The concept of "fair price"

The price that gives a normal income for a given class, if you subtract all costs

Labor expended in the production of goods

Bibliography

World History of Economic Thought (Volume I). Ed. I.P. Faminsky // M.: Scientific literature, 1997.

E.A. Milskaya, I.M. Zaichenko, S.S. Gutman. Economic theory. History of economic doctrines // St. Petersburg: Polytechnic University Publishing House, 2005.

O. Eger. Middle Ages (World History, vol. II) // St. Petersburg: Special Literature, 1997.

Levita R.Ya. History of economic doctrines: A complete course in brief // M.: INFRA-M, 2001.

Markova A.N. History of economic thought in Russia // M.: Unity, 1996.